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Section 5.6 of Hyper-TVT by ETH Zurich. No personal chapter author is credited. ETH Zurich’s Institute of Process Engineering issued the teaching site; the ETH Web Archive hosts the preserved text. No publication or revision date is established.

Online text: www.hyper-tvt.ethz.ch/distillation-efficiency.html

Cited section: 5.6 Efficiency, opening paragraphs: equilibrium plates versus actual plates; Overall efficiency paragraph: hydrodynamics and mass transfer affect efficiency; Lower efficiency increases actual stage count; Site imprint, Publisher and Webmaster fields.