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A researcher who tested causal accounts of interpretation bias and anxiety with Bundy Mackintosh. Training altered how participants resolved ambiguous information; changes in anxiety depended on how the material was processed. The experiments distinguish manipulating an interpretive tendency from observing a correlation between anxious feelings and threatening interpretations.^[ref]

A researcher who, with Andrew Mathews, experimentally changed interpretation bias. Repeated ambiguous material was resolved in threatening or benign ways, with later interpretations and anxiety measured separately. Active processing mattered for changes in anxiety, showing why shifting a task score is not equivalent to establishing a clinical benefit.^[ref]