Solution
= Solution
The data-independent alternatives to a causal interpretation are the same as in part <past-exam-of-the-experimental-design-and-methods-course-of-the-year-2-of-the-psychology-experimental-course-of-the-university-of-oxford/2022/2/c> of the Experimental Psychology paper. Use that discussion of <confounding>, selection and the distinction between appearance ratings and behavior; no particular observed association is assumed here.