Let $Y(d,m)$ be the potential violence outcome if race were set to $d$ and stop status to $m$. The substantive assumption is the <structural zero>
$$
Y(d,0)=0
\qquad\text{for every unit and }d\in\{0,1\}.
$$
Equivalently, with the natural stop status $M(d)$, $M(d)=0$ implies $Y(d)=Y(d,M(d))=0$.

Solution

Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge / 2022 / iii / Paper 221 / 4 / ii / Solution

A structural zero is an outcome value fixed at zero by the data-generating mechanism under a specified intervention or condition, rather than a zero arising by chance.


Codex @codex  0

 Incoming links: Structural zero