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The source's “last half” includes a wider interval than the definition of antepartum haemorrhage from 24 weeks used by the cited British guideline. No diagnosis follows from intermittency alone.

In placenta praevia, the placenta covers the internal opening of the cervix. Development of the lower uterine segment and opening of the cervix disturb attachment at the placental margin, exposing maternal vessels. Bleeding is often painless and recurrent and can become severe after apparently minor episodes. In placental abruption, a normally situated placenta separates prematurely. Bleeding into the placental bed reduces exchange with the fetus; pain, tenderness and increased tone of the uterus are suggestive, but their absence does not exclude it. Some blood can remain concealed, making visible vaginal loss a poor measure of total loss.

In vasa praevia, vulnerable fetal vessels run through the membranes near the internal cervical opening. Rupture, particularly when the membranes break, can cause rapid fetal blood loss while the mother remains comparatively stable. Other causes include a blood-stained cervical “show” in labour, cervical ectropion, a cervical polyp, local infection, trauma, and occasionally a tumour of the cervix or vagina. These must be distinguished from placental bleeding rather than presumed harmless from a small volume alone.^[ref]

For an 1867 answer, the classic contrast is between “unavoidable” haemorrhage from placenta praevia and “accidental” haemorrhage from premature separation of a normally implanted placenta. The adjectives are historical classifications, not claims that either outcome is inevitable or that every placental abruption follows an accident. Period management sought to conserve maternal strength when slight bleeding settled, then accomplish delivery when recurrent loss or labour made waiting dangerous. For partial placenta praevia, rupture of membranes was used in suitable labour to bring the presenting part down against the bleeding region. For more extensive placenta praevia, vaginal plugging, dilation and turning to deliver the child were debated and used. Contemporary discussion shows disagreement about how long it was safe to temporise: an 1864 report describes both advocates of early delivery and arguments about plugs, dilating bags and turning.^[ref]

Those measures belong to the history of managing haemorrhage before modern operative safety, imaging and transfusion services. They must not be carried over as a modern algorithm: a vaginal plug can conceal continuing loss; attempted separation of the placenta or turning through placenta praevia can aggravate bleeding and endanger the fetus.

In current practice, the initial response to significant bleeding is hospital assessment with maternal resuscitation, monitoring, intravenous access and blood tests, with blood products available according to severity. Determine placental position by ultrasonography, assess the fetus according to gestational age, and look for local causes with appropriate examination. Do not perform a digital vaginal examination while placenta praevia remains a possible explanation until it has been excluded by ultrasonography. A carefully performed speculum examination and a skilled transvaginal ultrasound are different procedures; the latter is a safe, useful way to locate the placental edge. A normal ultrasound does not exclude placental abruption.^[ref]

During the later preterm months, a stable mother and fetus after bleeding has stopped may be managed expectantly under specialist supervision. The plan includes surveillance, correction of anaemia, readiness to return urgently, and individual decisions about admission and timing of birth. Corticosteroids are considered when preterm delivery is likely; they do not treat the bleeding. Ongoing major haemorrhage, maternal instability or serious fetal compromise can require delivery regardless of immaturity. This is not a policy of waiting for full term at any cost.

At or near term, the cause determines the route. Persistent placenta praevia covering the internal cervical opening requires caesarean birth; repeated bleeding may require earlier delivery. Current 2026 guidance individualises timing for uncomplicated low-lying placenta or placenta praevia and advises considering planned birth no later than 37 weeks and 6 days. A low-lying placental edge that does not cover the opening requires individual assessment of whether vaginal birth is appropriate. These timings are present guidance, not an 1867 rule.^[ref]

With placental abruption, expedite delivery when indicated by maternal or fetal condition; caesarean birth is often required for a live compromised fetus when vaginal delivery is not imminent, while vaginal delivery may be appropriate in other circumstances. A local cervical lesion requires cause-specific management. Suspected rupture of vasa praevia is an emergency for urgent caesarean birth and neonatal resuscitation; an antenatally detected vasa praevia calls for planned birth before labour or membrane rupture.^[ref] The central distinction is therefore safe observation of a settled, stable preterm episode versus timely delivery for an ongoing hazard, not a single remedy for every late-pregnancy bleed.