= Vacuum technology
<Vacuum technology> creates, measures and maintains <gas> pressures below the surroundings for experiments and manufacturing. Pumps remove <gas> while leaks, permeation and <outgassing> replenish it. Clean surfaces and appropriate materials can therefore matter as much as nominal pump capacity.
In a simple steady model, a <gas> throughput $Q$ balanced by effective pumping speed $S_{\mathrm{eff}}$ gives $p=Q/S_{\mathrm{eff}}$. Connecting pipes reduce that speed through their <vacuum conductance>. The model assumes a specified <gas>, flow regime and suitable pressure-gauge interpretation; a <pressure> reading is not automatically a composition-independent measurement of every residual species.<Vacuum Technology for Ion Sources by Paolo Chiggiato>[Sections 2–3, molecular flow, gas loads and pumping balances]{ref}
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