 Solution

A null geodesic congruence is a smooth family of null geodesics filling a region without intersections there, with one tangent direction assigned smoothly at every point. Choose an affine parameter $\lambda$ and tangent $U^a$, so $U^a{U}_a=0$ and $U^b{\nabla }_b{U}^a=0$. Choose a second null vector $N^a$ with $U\cdot N=-1$. The screen-space projector isIt annihilates $U,N$ and restricts to a positive-definite metric on the two-dimensional transverse screen. Project the covariant derivative of the tangent to obtain the optical tensorIts decomposition defines the three optical quantities:The null expansion is the fractional rate of change of a transverse area, $\theta =A^{-1}dA/d\lambda$. The null shear changes a beam's shape without changing its area to first order. The null twist is its antisymmetric transverse deformation. The factor $1/2$ uses four spacetime dimensions.