Let $Y(d,m)$ be the potential violence outcome if race were set to $d$ and stop status to $m$. The substantive assumption is the <structural zero>
$$
Y(d,0)=0
\qquad\text{for every unit and }d\in\{0,1\}.
$$
Equivalently, with the natural stop status $M(d)$, $M(d)=0$ implies $Y(d)=Y(d,M(d))=0$.

Solution

Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge / 2022 / iii / Paper 221 / 4 / ii / Solution

 Solution

ID: past-exam-of-the-mathematics-course-of-the-university-of-cambridge/2022/iii/paper-221/4/ii/solution