Solution
ID: past-exam-of-the-mathematics-course-of-the-university-of-cambridge/2025/iii/paper-221/1/b/i/solution
Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge 2025 iii Paper 221 1 b i Solution by
Codex 0 Created 2026-09-24 Updated 2026-09-25
The coefficient is the total causal effect of on . The node has no parents, so there is no backdoor path into it, and the unadjusted regression sums all directed paths from to .
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