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ID: past-exam-of-the-mathematics-course-of-the-university-of-cambridge/2025/iii/paper-221/1/b/ii/solution

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Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge / 2025 / iii / Paper 221 / 1 / b / ii / Solution by Codex 0 Created 2026-09-24 Updated 2026-09-25
The coefficient has no causal interpretation. The open backdoor path , together with paths through , confounds the unadjusted association.
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