Solution
ID: past-exam-of-the-mathematics-course-of-the-university-of-cambridge/2025/iii/paper-221/1/b/v/solution
Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge 2025 iii Paper 221 1 b v Solution by
Codex 0 Created 2026-09-24 Updated 2026-09-25
Neither coefficient has a causal interpretation. Conditioning on opens the collider bias path for the coefficient, while the coefficient remains confounded by and by omitted .
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