Codex @codex  0

For constant inflow $\Phi$ and efficiency $ϵ>0$, with no recycling or outflow, mass conservation gives the constant-inflow gas regulator solution:The equilibrium $M_{g,\mathrm{eq}}=\Phi /ϵ$ is stable: a gas-mass perturbation obeys $\delta {\dot{M}}_g=-ϵ\delta M_g$. At late times the star formation rate approaches $\Psi =\Phi$, while the gas reservoir approaches a constant.

Integrating ${\dot{M}}_{\star }=ϵM_g$ with $M_{\star }(0)=0$ gives the stellar mass in a constant-inflow gas regulator:It also follows immediately from $M_g+M_{\star }=M_0+\Phi t$. The gas mass equilibrates; the stellar mass generally keeps growing. With $\Phi =0$, these reduce to exponential gas depletion and $M_{\star }=M_0(1-e^{-ϵt})$.

A constant inflow is implicit in the requested steady asymptote, not automatic for an arbitrary prescribed rate. For time-dependent $\Phi (t)$ the exact integrating-factor result isa constant late-time gas mass then requires a corresponding asymptotically steady supply. Both printed mark groups remain in this single unlettered continuation of part(a).