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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is a United States scientific agency whose observations and research cover the atmosphere and oceans. Its measurement products connect meteorology, climatology and ocean circulation, with a stated observing method and reference period needed to interpret each product.

For example, its Arctic Oscillation index projects a measured atmospheric field onto a specified spatial pattern, while a climatological normal summarizes a different kind of information: statistics over a defined reference interval.^[ref][ref] Neither product is a direct measurement of one universal scalar called climate.