Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge 2002 iii Paper 9 3 Solution Created 2026-10-03 Updated 2026-10-14
A linked graph is -linked if it has at least vertices and, for every choice of distinct terminals , it has pairwise vertex-disjoint graph paths joining to for all . The pairing is prescribed, which is stronger than the unpaired conclusion of the Menger theorem.
We prove the rooted dense minor linkage step carefully. We first prove the rooted branch-set reduction. Let be even, let , and suppose a graph has disjoint nonempty vertex sets , where . Suppose each is connected or every one of its graph components meets , and each is adjacent to all but at most of the other not meeting . Assume also that no rooted separation of a graph of order below avoids of these sets. Then there are disjoint connected vertex sets such that for and each of these first sets is adjacent to all but at most of .
Here adjacency of sets means existence of an edge between them. A rooted separation of a graph is with , , no edges between and , and order . It avoids when . We prove the reduction by induction, first on the vertex count and then on the edge count; any counterexample chosen minimal in this ordering will be impossible.
We may delete edges joining two vertices of . They cannot affect rooted separations of a graph, since lies wholly on the first side. Within a branch set, their deletion can only split a graph component into graph components each containing an endpoint in , so the branch-set hypothesis also persists. An isolated vertex outside and all branch sets can be deleted. An isolated vertex is also impossible, since has order and avoids at least sets. Thus in a minimal counterexample is independent, and every isolated vertex outside belongs to a singleton branch set.
Consider a rooted separation of a graph of order exactly avoiding at least branch sets, and put . Restrict to and . Each is nonempty: any not itself avoided is adjacent to at least one of the avoided sets, and the endpoint of such an edge in must lie in . If a graph component of misses , it lies in and is a whole graph component of , with no vertex of . The original hypothesis then forces to be connected and , entirely outside . Thus each restricted set is connected or all its graph components meet . In particular every missing equals an original set outside , so all its required adjacencies from persist.
A rooted separation of a graph of avoiding restricted sets lifts to in , of the same order: an avoided restricted set misses , hence is an original set outside . The edges removed inside do not obstruct lifting, since . This proves the required separation hypothesis for . If is smaller, induction gives the desired connected sets rooted at . Moreover has disjoint graph paths from to , by the Menger theorem. Indeed a separator of smaller order between these sets would give a rooted separation of a graph of of smaller order still avoiding those original sets. Truncate the graph paths at their first visits to , label their endpoints accordingly, and adjoin each graph path to the corresponding rooted connected set. They meet only in their distinct endpoints, so this gives the desired sets for , a contradiction. Consequently in a minimal counterexample every such separation of order has and , an independent set.
Now contract any edge whose endpoints do not belong to two different branch sets. Its endpoints cannot both lie in , so the image of still has size . The branch-set conditions persist. If the contraction created a forbidden rooted separation of a graph of order below , its lift would have order below , except possibly when the contracted vertex lies in its separator. In that case the lifted order increases by one and is at most . Equality would put the contracted edge inside , contradicting the just-proved independence of for an order- separation avoiding sets. Thus the separation hypothesis also persists. Applying induction in the contracted graph and expanding the contracted vertex would produce the required disjoint connected sets. Hence every edge in a minimal counterexample joins two different branch sets.
Every vertex outside the branch sets would be isolated, since every edge joins two branch sets; such an isolated vertex could be deleted. Thus the branch sets cover the graph. Each nonsingleton branch set is therefore an independent set, and all its vertices belong to , because each of its singleton graph components must meet . Let be the union of the nonsingleton branch sets, and write . There is a matching in a graph from into . Otherwise the Hall marriage theorem gives with neighbourhood satisfying . Since is independent, is a rooted separation of a graph of order . It avoids every singleton branch set outside , of which there are at leastThe penultimate counting bound uses that the nonsingleton sets number at most , so . This contradicts the separation hypothesis.
Use that matching in a graph to make a two-vertex connected set for each terminal in ; terminals outside remain singleton sets. There are at leastunused vertices, all singleton original branch sets. Choose of them for the remaining . Every rooted contains a singleton original branch set: either its terminal, or its terminal's matched neighbour. That singleton misses at most of the selected nonterminal singleton sets. This constructs exactly the desired family, contradicting minimality and proving the branch-set reduction.
Return to the given -connected graph. By the allowed assumption it has a graph minor with , where . Put . ThenTake a branch-set model of and the prescribed terminals as . The branch sets are connected and each misses at most of the others. The separation hypothesis holds with : a separation of order below avoiding a branch set would separate a surviving terminal from that set, contrary even to -connectivity. Since , the reduction applies. It produces sets with , , each terminal set missing at most of the nonterminal sets. For each pair at leastnonterminal sets are adjacent to both. Choose different such sets for the pairs successively. The connected graph property inside the three sets and the two joining edges give a graph path from to ; take a simple graph path within their union. Different graph paths use disjoint sets. We have provedIn fact the argument proves the stronger transfer statement with -connectivity and the stated dense graph minor.
For the negative assertion, it suffices to give a value of for which the proposed general implication fails. Take and the graph on cyclic indices in which two indices are adjacent when their cyclic distance is one or two. This is the four-connected planar obstruction to two-linkage. Draw the even cycle in a graph as the outer square, the odd cycle in a graph as an inner square rotated by degrees of vertices, and join each odd vertex to the two neighbouring even vertices; the annulus is triangulated without crossings. The outer face has vertices in this order.
Deleting at most three vertices leaves the graph connected. In cyclic order, consecutive surviving vertices are joined unless separated by a run of at least two deleted vertices. Disconnection requires two distinct such runs, hence at least four deletions. Conversely deleting the four neighbours of a vertex isolates it, so the vertex connectivity is exactly four. Disjoint graph paths joining to and to cannot exist: both would lie in the closed disk complementary to the outer face, and their endpoints alternate on its boundary. A first such graph path is a crosscut of the disk; the Jordan curve theorem puts the other two endpoints on opposite sides, forcing the second graph path to meet it. ThusThis is a counterexample to the unrestricted implication; no claim that the same construction works for every is needed.
Rooted dense minor linkage 2026-10-14
If a graph is -connected and has a graph minor satisfying , it is -linked. Write , so . The rooted branch-set reduction replaces the minor model by disjoint connected sets, the first containing any prescribed terminals separately, each missing at most of the remaining sets. Every prescribed pair then has at least common adjacent unused sets, allowing the connections to be selected successively. The reduction uses rooted separations of a graph, contraction of edges outside distinct branch sets, and a final Hall marriage theorem matching; the separation condition prevents a contraction from destroying access to the model.
