Amorphous solids are a class of materials that lack a long-range ordered crystalline structure. Unlike crystalline solids, which have a well-defined and repeating arrangement of atoms or molecules, amorphous solids possess a disordered arrangement. This means that their atomic or molecular structure does not exhibit the regular repeating patterns characteristic of crystals. Key features of amorphous solids include: 1. **Disordered Structure**: Amorphous solids do not have a definitive geometric shape or long-range order.
Magnetic monopoles are hypothetical particles that are theorized to be isolated magnetic charges, similar to how electric charges exist as positive or negative entities. In classical electromagnetism, magnetic fields are produced by electric charges, and magnetic poles always occur in pairs—every magnet has a north and a south pole. The idea of magnetic monopoles was first introduced by physicist Paul Dirac in 1931.
Physics beyond the Standard Model refers to theoretical and experimental research that seeks to address limitations and unanswered questions associated with the Standard Model of particle physics. The Standard Model successfully describes the fundamental particles and their interactions through the electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces, but it has several significant shortcomings: 1. **Gravity**: The Standard Model does not incorporate gravity, which is described by General Relativity. A complete theory of quantum gravity remains elusive.