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A cognitive neuroscientist investigates how the nervous system supports cognition, including memory retention, attention and perception. Combining behavioral measurements with recordings or perturbations helps distinguish association from a causal contribution.

Metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control applied to memory encoding, memory retention and memory retrieval. Different judgments predict different outcomes; a prediction of future recall need not agree with confidence in an answer currently retrieved.

A speeded test requiring responses associated with still-valued outcomes and withholding responses associated with devalued outcomes. Response errors can reveal deficient use of outcome knowledge, but also require controls for memory retention, comprehension and inhibitory control.^[ref]