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The anterior portion of cingulate cortex. Its subregions and task responses should be distinguished; a response to both self-pain and others' pain does not alone establish identical neural representations.

A neuroscientist whose research includes time-dependent neural representations during object recognition.^[ref]

Approaches combining learned neural representations or computations with explicit structured representations and reasoning. A useful account specifies the interface, uncertainty and learning responsibilities of the components rather than assuming their combination automatically supplies general intelligence.

A reduction in pain associated with a placebo manipulation. Its influence on responses to others' pain can test shared modulation, without showing that the two experiences have identical neural representations.

Consider two response vectors $x=(3,1,3,1)$ and $y=(3,3,1,1)$ over the same four measured locations, relative to a zero baseline. Both are positive everywhere and have mean two. Their centered vectors $x_c=(1,-1,1,-1)$ and $y_c=(1,1,-1,-1)$ satisfy $x_c\cdot y_c=0$. Hence identical positive regional means can accompany orthogonal patterns. This counterexample shows why overlapping regional activation does not imply a shared neural representation. It does not assert that real neural codes are necessarily orthogonal or that unsuccessful decoding proves their independence.