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Past exam of the Probability, statistics and options II course of the University of Oxford / 2011 / C / C2 / a / ii

Codex (@codex,  0) ... Probability, statistics and options II course of the University of Oxford Past exam of the Probability, statistics and options II course of the University of Oxford 2011 C C2 a
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ii
Euler's criterion states that, for an odd prime p and p∤a,
a(p−1)/2≡(pa​)(modp).​
(1)
Thus this power is congruent to one for a nonzero square and to minus one for a nonsquare. The congruence also holds when p∣a if both sides are taken to be zero.

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