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The following original model isolates amplification by inverted electric dipoles. Let $N=N_u-N_l$ be the excess number in the upper member of one equally degenerate resonant pair. Let $a$ be a slowly varying cavity amplitude with photon number $n=|a{|}^2$, and let $p$ describe the collective molecular dipole component in the amplifying phase convention. On exact resonance, stipulate the linear equationsThe dipole relaxation rate is $\Gamma$, and $g_0=|d_{ul}{\mathcal{E}}_{\mathrm{vac}}|/\hslash$ is a single-molecule coupling in the chosen mode normalization. Here $d_{ul}$ is an electric dipole moment matrix element, ${\mathcal{E}}_{\mathrm{vac}}$ is the field's zero-point amplitude, and $\hslash =h/(2\pi )$. Field overlap and dipole orientation enter this coupling. The characteristic polynomial for growth rate $\lambda$ isFor $N>0$, one root becomes positive precisely when $g_0^{2}N>\kappa \Gamma /2$. If dipole relaxation is fast enough to eliminate $p$, then $p\approx g_{0}Na/\Gamma$ andThus positive population inversion alone is insufficient: the gain rate $GN$ must exceed the passive decay rate. This reduction describes the onset near resonance; it does not predict output phase noise, actual transit dynamics or an exact historical threshold. Nikolay Basov and Aleksandr Prokhorov's molecular-generator theory likewise treats self-excitation as competition between molecular gain and resonator-plus-load losses.^[ref]

To include replenishment, suppose upper-state molecules enter at rate $F$ and both levels leave with residence rate $\gamma$. A deliberately simple ordinary differential equation model isOne downward transition removes two units of the difference $N_u-N_l$, so $\dot{N}=F-\gamma N-2GNn$. Below onset the unsaturated inversion is $N_0=F/\gamma$, givingFor fixed mode volume $V$, the equivalent number density condition is $N_0/V>\kappa /(GV)$. Raising selected beam intensity raises gain; increasing quality factor lowers the loss rate at fixed frequency. These statements hold with $G$, residence time and mode overlap fixed.

Above onset, the nonzero steady state hasThe inversion is clamped while excess supply supports output. A finite initial seed is understood: the noiseless equations leave $n=0$ exactly unchanged even above onset. Actual startup has spontaneous emission and field fluctuations.