Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge / 2026 / iii / Paper 207 / 1 / a / Solution

Let $Y_s(1)$ and $Y_s(0)$ be the potential outcomes for the apprenticeship proportion at school $s$ if it is or is not converted to a UTC. The policy-relevant estimand is the average causal effectover the population of schools eligible for conversion. Ideally this would be identified by a Randomized controlled trial of conversion, or by an observational design that reproduces its exchangeability.