Steven Weinberg Created 2026-10-18 Updated 2026-11-05
Steven Weinberg's 1967 lepton model combined the weak interaction and electromagnetic interaction in a gauge-theory framework. Spontaneous symmetry breaking gives different masses to the weak vector bosons while leaving the photon massless. This joins interactions with very different apparent ranges under a common structure, with their differences arising from the vacuum and couplings. The paper also identifies renormalizability as a crucial consistency question, rather than claiming that all higher-order calculations were already established.[ref]