Intel CPU Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
C-peptide Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
B chain of insulin Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
A chain of insulin Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Proinsulin Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
c/inc_loop_asm_n.sh Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
This is a quick Microarchitectural benchmark to try and determine how many functional units our CPU has that can do an inc instruction at the same time due to superscalar architecture.
The generated programs do loops like:
loop:
  inc %[i0];
  inc %[i1];
  inc %[i2];
  ...
  inc %[i_n];
  cmp %[max], %[i0];
  jb loop;
with different numbers of inc instructions.
Figure 1.
c/inc_loop_asm_n.sh results for a few CPUs
.
Quite clearly:
and both have low instruction count effects that destroy performance, AMD at 3 and Intel at 3 and 5. TODO it would be cool to understand those better.
Data from multiple CPUs manually collated and plotted manually with ../c/inc_loop_asm_n_manual.sh.
c/inc_loop_asm.c Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
This is the only way that we've managed to reliably get a single inc instruction loop, by using inline assembly, e.g. on we do x86:
loop:
  inc %[i];
  cmp %[max], %[i];
  jb loop;
For 1s on P14s Ubuntu 25.04 GCC 14.2 -O0 x86_64 we need about 5 billion:
time ./inc_loop_asm.out 5000000000
c/inc_loop.c Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Ubuntu 25.04 GCC 14.2 -O0 x86_64 produces a horrendous:
11c8:       48 83 45 f0 01          addq   $0x1,-0x10(%rbp)
11cd:       48 8b 45 f0             mov    -0x10(%rbp),%rax
11d1:       48 3b 45 e8             cmp    -0x18(%rbp),%rax
11d5:       72 f1                   jb     11c8 <main+0x7f>
To do about 1s on P14s we need 2.5 billion instructions:
time ./inc_loop.out 2500000000
and:
time ./inc_loop.out 2500000000
gives:
          1,052.22 msec task-clock                       #    0.998 CPUs utilized             
                23      context-switches                 #   21.858 /sec                      
                12      cpu-migrations                   #   11.404 /sec                      
                60      page-faults                      #   57.022 /sec                      
    10,015,198,766      instructions                     #    2.08  insn per cycle            
                                                  #    0.00  stalled cycles per insn   
     4,803,504,602      cycles                           #    4.565 GHz                       
        20,705,659      stalled-cycles-frontend          #    0.43% frontend cycles idle      
     2,503,079,267      branches                         #    2.379 G/sec                     
           396,228      branch-misses                    #    0.02% of all branches
With -O3 it manages to fully unroll the loop removing it entirely and producing:
    1078:       e8 d3 ff ff ff          call   1050 <strtoll@plt>
}
    107d:       5a                      pop    %rdx
    107e:       c3                      ret
to is it smart enough to just return the return value from strtoll directly as is in rax.
Inline assembly Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Insulin Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Studying insulin reveals some really cool protein motifs of life:
Figure 1.
Primary structure of insulin
. Source.
The Amino-acid Sequence in the Phenylalanyl Chain of Insulin Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
This is where he started publishing the sequence of insulin. The paper gives the full B-chain sequence, which it tentatively calls the "Phenylalanyl Chain" because it starts with a Phenylalanyl.
The official link seems to be: portlandpress.com/biochemj/article/49/4/463/47212/The-amino-acid-sequence-in-the-phenylalanyl-chain It seems to explain the methods very well at first glance, with lots of schematics.
Sanger method Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
C example Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Phi X 174 Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Peptide hormone Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Programming language feature Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Pulsar Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
This is one of those things that when astronomers first saw them they went "oh fuck we've found extraterrestrial life".
CPU microbenchmark Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Some examples:
1915 Nobel Prize in Physics Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
Jointly awarded to Bragg Junior and Senior. Junior was only 25 at the time, the youngest ever STEM nobel prize laureate as of 2024, and given that science is getting harder nad harder, this is not likely to change ever.
Part of what they did was to determine the structure of a bunch of rocks. These must have been every exciting times, to be able for the first time to have direct evidence of the molecular composition of materials.
1974 Nobel Prize in Physics Created 2025-06-17 Updated 2025-07-16
As described at Section "Radio astronomy", this new type of telescope led to the exciting discovery of new types of astronomical objects, notably pulsars and quasars.

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