X-ray (10 pm - 10 nm)

X-rays are high-frequency electromagnetic radiation, conventionally with wavelengths of roughly $0.01$ to $10\mathrm{nm}$. The precise wavelength convention varies with context. Hot accreting gas and energetic electronic processes can emit X-rays, whose short wavelengths make them useful probes of compact objects and electron shells.

For a photon, $E=h\nu =hc/\lambda$, where $h$ is the Planck constant and $c$ is the speed of light. As a calculated example, $\lambda =0.10\mathrm{nm}$ gives $E\simeq 12.4\mathrm{keV}$, using $hc\simeq 1.23984\mathrm{keV}\mathrm{nm}$. The same wavelength can describe different production mechanisms: bremsstrahlung produces a continuous frequency spectrum, whereas Characteristic X-rays arise from discrete electronic changes in chemical atoms. Measuring transmitted X-rays gives radiography; measuring their frequency spectrum gives spectroscopy.