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The difference between gross primary production and both autotrophic and heterotrophic respiration. A full storage budget must additionally account for disturbance and lateral transfers.

Interchange of sulfur substituents through reactions such as thiolate attack on a disulfide. Rates and equilibria depend on protonation, solvent and redox conditions.

The ratio of a specified downward dry deposition flux to its reference near-surface concentration. It has units of speed but need not be an actual particle settling speed: transfer resistance and surface uptake can both control gas dry deposition.

A monotonic queue keeps candidate values in sorted order while a window moves through a sequence. For window maxima, discard smaller or equal values from the back before appending a new value, and remove expired indices from the front. The maximum is always at the front. Each index enters and leaves at most once, so all windows can be processed in linear time.

A frequency change associated with rotation and exchange of angular momentum. If an optical element rotates at angular velocity $\Omega$ about a chosen axis and gains angular momentum $\Delta L$ from a photon, its mechanical energy gain is $\Omega \Delta L$ in the prescribed slow-rotation model. Energy conservation then gives photon frequency change $\Delta \omega =-\Omega \Delta L/\hslash$. The rotating half-wave plate frequency shift is a spin-polarization example.

In a scalar effective-mass dielectric model, the donor radius is $a_B^{\ast }={ϵ}_r(m_e/m^{\ast })a_0$. The effective mass reduces the kinetic-energy scale and dielectric screening weakens attraction. The corresponding binding energy scales as $(m^{\ast }/m_e){ϵ}_r^{-2}$ times the vacuum hydrogen binding energy.

Dependence of subsequent contest behaviour or outcomes on previous wins or losses. Repeated outcomes require controls for pre-existing ability and opponent differences.

Age-associated changes in the tasks performed by social-group members. Social and physiological regulation can make the sequence plastic rather than strictly chronological.

The carbonyl cis effect is preferential labilization of a ligand cis to another ligand in many six-coordinate metal carbonyls. Site preference in five-coordinate intermediates and transition states matters. Isotopic exchange can distinguish departure sites more directly than substitution-product geometry alone.

Movement between the natal site and the site of reproduction.

When merging two components in a disjoint-set data structure, attach the representative of the smaller component to that of the larger one. Each time an element's depth increases its component size at least doubles, so its depth is logarithmically bounded even before path compression is applied.

A developmental syndrome associated with dysregulation of Ras-controlled signaling. A broad phosphoprotein pattern alone does not establish diagnosis or identify a causal mutation.

A bacterial disease of honeybee brood caused by Paenibacillus larvae. Colony-level disease outcomes are distinct from an individual worker’s immune activity.