Adiabatic invariance of the action

When a Hamiltonian parameter varies slowly compared with the orbital period and no separatrix is crossed, the action changes only at higher adiabatic order.

For a one-dimensional particle of energy $E$ between walls separated by $L$, the unnormalized action isAdiabatic conservation gives $E(t)L(t{)}^2=\text{constant}$.

If an action has parameter dependence $I\propto \sqrt{m/|E|}$, adiabatic conservation implies $|E|\propto m$.

When a gravitational potential changes slowly relative to an orbital period, the orbital actions remain constant provided no separatrix is crossed. In a spherical potential, angular momentum is conserved exactly and the radial action is adiabatically conserved.

Adiabatic invariance of an orbital action preserves action values during slow regular changes, but frequencies $\partial H/\partial J_i$ can vary. Closure requires rational frequency ratios, which need not persist. A slowly added harmonic component in a Kepler orbit potential produces generic apsidal precession.