Enumerate the orthonormal basis consisting of and the Haar wavelets as , and enumerate the corresponding independent standard normal random variables as . Set . The Parseval identity for a Hilbertian basis givesThe partial sums form a martingale for , since the next summand is independent of the past and has mean zero. Moreover,The martingale convergence theorem for a martingale bounded in L2 space proves convergence almost surely and convergence in L2. Equivalently one may apply the Kolmogorov convergence theorem to the summable variances .
A finite linear combination of independent normal random variables is normal. Its characteristic function is . Passing to the limit identifiesFor this is the constant zero random variable. Each fixed has its own permissible null set; simultaneous pathwise convergence for all is unnecessary.
Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge 2022 iii Paper 201 2 a Solution Created 2026-09-28 Updated 2026-10-14
The strong law of large numbers states that for independent identically distributed integrable random variables,To prove it, set . The tail-sum formula gives , so the Borel-Cantelli lemmas make the two sequences eventually equal. AlsoThe Kolmogorov convergence theorem implies that converges almost surely, and Kronecker lemma yieldsFinally , so the Cesàro mean of these expectations tends to .