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Network throughput refers to the rate at which data is successfully transmitted over a network from one point to another in a given amount of time. It is often measured in bits per second (bps) or its multiples, such as kilobits per second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).

The Noisy-Channel Coding Theorem is a fundamental result in information theory, established by Claude Shannon in the 1940s. It addresses the problem of transmitting information over a communication channel that is subject to noise, which can distort the signals being sent. The theorem provides a theoretical foundation for the design of codes that can efficiently and reliably transmit information under noisy conditions.

Observed information, often referred to in the context of statistical models and estimation, generally pertains to the actual data or measurements that have been collected in an experiment or observational study. In a more technical sense, particularly in the context of statistical inference, "observed information" can refer to the second derivative of the log-likelihood function with respect to the parameters of a statistical model. This quantity measures the amount of information that the data provides about the parameters.

A one-way quantum computer, also known as a measurement-based quantum computer, is a model of quantum computation that relies on the concept of entanglement and a sequence of measurements to perform calculations. The key idea of this model is to prepare a highly entangled state of qubits, known as a cluster state, which then serves as a resource for computation.

Operator grammar is a type of formal grammar that focuses on the manipulation and transformation of strings in a formal language. It was introduced by the linguist and computer scientist J. E. Hopcroft and is particularly associated with the study of syntax in natural languages and programming languages. In operator grammar, structural rules are defined through the use of "operators." These operators can manipulate strings based on specific patterns or structures, allowing for the generation and recognition of valid strings in the language.

Outage probability is a term commonly used in telecommunications and networking to quantify the likelihood that a system or communication link will fail to meet certain performance criteria, such as data transmission rates or signal quality. It refers to the probability that the quality of service (QoS) falls below a predefined threshold, leading to the inability to effectively transmit information.

Per-user unitary rate control is a network management technique that regulates the amount of data transmitted to and from individual users or devices within a network. This concept is often used in telecommunications and internet service provision to ensure fairness, avoid congestion, and maintain quality of service (QoS) across all users. ### Key Aspects of Per-user Unitary Rate Control: 1. **Unitary Rate Limiting**: Each user is assigned a specific data transmission rate or limit.

The term "phase factor" is commonly used in various fields such as physics, particularly in quantum mechanics and wave physics. It typically refers to a complex factor that affects the phase of a wave or wavefunction.

Pinsker's inequality is a fundamental result in information theory and probability theory that provides a bound on the distance between two probability distributions in terms of the Kullback-Leibler divergence (also known as relative entropy) and the total variation distance.

Pointwise Mutual Information (PMI) is a measure used in probability and information theory to quantify the association between two events or random variables. It assesses how much more likely two events are to occur together than would be expected if they were independent. PMI can be particularly useful in areas such as natural language processing, information retrieval, and statistics.

The Pragmatic Theory of Information suggests that information is not just a set of data or facts but is context-dependent and centered around the usefulness of that information to individuals or systems in specific situations. This theory emphasizes the role of social interactions, context, and the practical application of knowledge in shaping what is considered information. Key aspects of the Pragmatic Theory of Information include: 1. **Context-Dependence**: The value and meaning of information can vary based on the context in which it is used.

The Principle of Least Privilege (PoLP) is a security concept that dictates that any user, program, or system should be granted the minimum level of access—or permissions—necessary to perform its tasks. The goal is to limit the potential damage or misuse of systems and data by minimizing the access rights for accounts, processes, and applications.

Privilege revocation in computing refers to the process of removing or changing a user's permissions or access rights within a system or application. This is a crucial aspect of security and access control in computing environments, as it ensures that users have only the privileges necessary to perform their tasks, helping to mitigate the risk of unauthorized access or actions by either legitimate users or attackers.

"Quantities of information" often refers to the measurement of information, which can be quantified in several ways depending on the context. Here are some key concepts and methodologies associated with this term: 1. **Bit**: The basic unit of information in computing and information theory. A bit represents a binary choice, like 0 or 1. 2. **Byte**: A group of eight bits; a common unit used to quantify digital information, typically used to represent a character in text.

Quantum capacity refers to the maximum amount of quantum information that can be reliably transmitted through a quantum channel. This concept is analogous to classical information theory, where the capacity of a channel is defined by the maximum rate at which information can be communicated with arbitrarily low error. In quantum communication, the capacity is not just about bits of information, but about qubits—the fundamental units of quantum information.

Quantum coin flipping is a process in quantum information theory that allows two parties to flip a coin in such a way that both parties can be assured of a fair outcome, as determined by the principles of quantum mechanics. The goal is to ensure that neither player can control the result of the coin flip, while still achieving a verifiable outcome. In a classical coin flip, there is an inherent uncertainty about the result, depending on the methods used.

Quantum computing is a type of computation that leverages the principles of quantum mechanics to process information in fundamentally different ways compared to classical computing. Here are some key concepts that define quantum computing: 1. **Quantum Bits (Qubits)**: Unlike classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1, qubits can exist in a superposition of states. This means that a qubit can represent 0, 1, or any quantum superposition of these states simultaneously.

Quantum t-designs are mathematical structures in the field of quantum information theory that generalize the concept of classical t-designs. They are used to provide a way of approximating the properties of quantum states and quantum operations, particularly in the context of quantum computing and quantum statistics. In classical statistics, a **t-design** is a configuration that allows for the averaging of polynomials of degree up to t over a given distribution.

Random number generation is the process of producing numbers that cannot be predicted statistically. It is essential in various fields such as cryptography, computer simulations, statistical sampling, and gaming, where randomness is required to ensure fairness, create varied outputs, or simulate random phenomena. There are two main approaches to random number generation: 1. **True Random Number Generators (TRNGs)**: These generate numbers based on physical phenomena that are inherently random, such as thermal noise, radioactive decay, or atmospheric noise.

Rate-distortion theory is a branch of information theory that deals with the trade-off between the fidelity of data representation (distortion) and the amount of information (rate) used to represent that data. It provides a framework for understanding how to encode data such that it can be reconstructed with a certain level of quality while minimizing the amount of information transmitted or stored. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Rate (R):** This refers to the number of bits per symbol needed to encode the data.