A proper right ideal $L$ is maximal if no proper right ideal strictly contains it. Equivalently, $A/L$ is a simple module. The Jacobson radical is the intersection of all maximal right ideals.

At pericentre, mean longitude equals longitude of periapsis, so resonant argument $\varphi =(p+q)\lambda -p{\lambda }_p-q\varpi$ becomes $\varphi =p(\varpi -{\lambda }_p)$. The pericentre angle in the planet's rotating frame is $\varphi /p$ modulo $2\pi /p$. For coprime $p,q$, there are $p$ distinct pericentre directions before the trajectory closes. Resonant-argument libration restricts these directions and supplies resonance protection.

For resonant trapping of dust in an exterior $(p+q):p$ mean-motion resonance, let Poynting–Robertson drag have parameter $A$. Holding semi-major axis $a$ fixed and retaining secular rates through second order in orbital eccentricity givesFor $5p>q$, squared orbital eccentricity approaches this equilibrium exponentially in the truncated model. If the predicted value is not small, higher-order terms are needed for quantitative dynamics. Finite planetary torque also imposes a minimum eccentricity for balance, which alone does not guarantee capture during migration.

This prescription selects an arbitrary scale or scheme parameter by making a truncated perturbative observable stationary under its variation. The complete physical observable is independent of the renormalization scale, but truncation leaves residual dependence. Stationarity is a prescription, not a guarantee of uniquely optimal accuracy or of a stationary point's existence.

The on-shell measure $d^{3}p/(2E)$ is Lorentz invariant. The product measure together with the four-dimensional Dirac delta distribution enforces four-momentum conservation. For equal masses in two-body scattering, $d{\Phi }_2=\sqrt{1-4m^2/s}d\Omega /(32{\pi }^2)$.

For two incident particles in relativistic normalization, this is $2\sqrt{\kappa (s,m_1^2,m_2^2)}$, where $\kappa$ is the Källén function. For equal masses it is $2\sqrt{s(s-4m^2)}$.

An einbein specifies a one-dimensional metric tensor along a worldline. In the relativistic particle phase-space action it is the Lagrange multiplier for the mass-shell condition and transforms as $\delta e=\dot{ϵ}$ under the corresponding canonical gauge transformation. After eliminating the momentum, its geometric interpretation depends on the normalization of the particle action.

The relative topological K-theory productis induced by the reduced diagonal $X/A\to (X/A)\wedge (X/A)$. If $X/A$ is a positive-dimensional sphere, this diagonal is null-homotopic, so the kernel of $K^0(X)\to K^0(A)$ is square-zero.

The primary small-scale Cosmic microwave background power spectrum measures the amplitude $A_s{e}^{-2{\tau }_{\mathrm{re}}}$, because reionization damps each temperature amplitude once. The unaffected large-scale temperature modes are few and limited by cosmic variance. Polarization and gravitational lensing provide additional information that partly breaks this degeneracy.

The graph whose vertices are two-element subsets of a five-element set, with two vertices adjacent when the subsets are disjoint. It has ten vertices, degree three, zero common neighbours for adjacent pairs and one for nonadjacent pairs. Its adjacency matrix of a graph satisfies $A^2+A-2I=J$ and has eigenvalues $3,1,-2$ of multiplicities $1,5,4$.

Take two copies of the category of rings, identify their terminal zero rings, and adjoin a strict initial object $\perp$. Same-copy finite categorical limits are ordinary ring limits; products of nonzero objects in different copies are $\perp$. Ring surjections and $1_{\perp }$ are precisely the strong epimorphisms. They are stable under pullback along monomorphisms, so image factorizations exist and Frobenius reciprocity for subobjects holds. But pulling $\mathbb{Z}$ in one copy $\to 0$ back along $\mathbb{Z}[x]$ in the other copy $\to 0$ gives $\perp \to \mathbb{Z}[x]$. This is not epic: evaluations $x\mapsto 0,1$ agree after precomposing with it. Thus the category is not regular, since strong epimorphisms would then be regular and pullback-stable.

A penalized regression spline estimates basis coefficients by minimizing a residual or likelihood criterion plus a curvature penalty. Basis size limits the available complexity; the penalty controls how much of that complexity is used.

A Newtonian telescope uses a concave parabolic primary and a flat diagonal secondary to send the converging beam to a side focus. The primary avoids on-axis spherical aberration, but has off-axis coma.

A Cassegrain arrangement places a secondary before the primary focus and returns light through a hole in the primary to a focus behind it. In the classical design the primary is parabolic and the secondary convex hyperbolic. The compact arrangement has a long effective focal length; its classical implementation retains off-axis coma.

A Gregorian telescope has a concave parabolic primary and a concave ellipsoidal secondary beyond the primary focus. Light crosses the intermediate focus, reaches the secondary, and returns through the primary to the final focus. The ellipsoid’s two foci are the intermediate and final focus.

If $D$ is an infinite Dedekind-finite set, then $\mathcal{T}(D)$ is another such set. Single-vertex rooted trees inject $D$ into it. A countable sequence of distinct rooted trees gives finite lists of labels by the depth-first traversal of a tree in the prescribed child order. By countable union of explicitly ordered finite lists without choice, an infinite union of labels contradicts Dedekind-finiteness. A finite union $F$ is equally impossible, since every rooted tree then lies in the finite set $\mathcal{T}(F)$, by mathematical induction on $|F|$ using the recursive child rule. Thus no countably infinite subset of rooted trees exists.

Spin decimation sums over spins at selected lattice sites while retaining the others. For alternate-site elimination in a nearest-neighbour periodic chain of even length, the coarse spin-chain transfer matrix is $W^2$, because its $(s,t)$ entry sums $W_{sa}{W}_{at}$ over the eliminated middle spin. Exact preservation $\mathrm{tr}(W^2{)}^{N/2}=\mathrm{tr}{W}^N$ requires keeping the scalar normalization as well as the entry ratios.

An infinite positive coupling coordinate $v$ can be studied through $w=1/v$, with $v=\infty$ represented by $w=0$. For example, $v^{\prime }=v^4/A(u)$ with $A(u)>0$ becomes $w^{\prime }=A(u)w^4$, a smooth map at zero. This gives a well-defined boundary renormalization-group fixed point whose derivative in the reciprocal direction is zero. One should use this chart rather than substituting infinity into an ordinary finite-coordinate Jacobian.

Real linear equivalence means that $D-E$ is a finite real combination of principal Cartier divisors. Rational linear equivalence uses rational coefficients instead. Both imply numerical equivalence of divisors.

A real Cartier divisor is ample if it is a positive real combination of ample Cartier divisors. Equivalently its numerical class lies in the ample cone. To recover an actual positive combination from the numerical condition, write the divisor in a finite Cartier basis and take nearby rational points in the inverse image of the open ample cone. A small rational simplex around the original coefficient vector expresses it as a positive convex combination of rational ample Cartier combinations; clearing denominators gives ample Cartier divisors.