Ciro Santilli @cirosantilli  40

Born: 1965

Died: 2010+-ish

This is the lowest level of abstraction computer, at which the basic gates and power are described.

At this level, you are basically thinking about the 3D layered structure of a chip, and how to make machines that will allow you to create better, usually smaller, gates.

It is quite amazing to read through books such as The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray by Charles J. Murray (1997), as it makes you notice that earlier CPUs (all before the 70's) were not made with integrated circuits, but rather smaller pieces glued up on PCBs! E.g. the arithmetic logic unit was actually a discrete component at one point.

The reason for this can also be understood quite clearly by reading books such as Robert Noyce: The Man Behind the Microchip by Leslie Berlin (2006). The first integrated circuits were just too small for this. It was initially unimaginable that a CPU would fit in a single chip! Even just having a very small number of components on a chip was already revolutionary and enough to kick-start the industry. Just imagine how much money any level of integration saved in those early days for production, e.g. as opposed to manually soldering point-to-point constructions. Also the reliability, size an weight gains were amazing. In particular for military and spacial applications originally.

Register transfer level is the abstraction level at which computer chips are mostly designed.

The only two truly relevant RTL languages as of 2020 are: Verilog and VHDL. Everything else compiles to those, because that's all that EDA vendors support.

Much like a C compiler abstracts away the CPU assembly to:

Compilers for RTL languages such as Verilog and VHDL abstract away the details of the specific semiconductor technology used for those exact same reasons.

The compilers essentially compile the RTL languages into a standard cell library.

Examples of companies that work at this level include:

Way, way before instant messaging, there was... teletype!

The main interface between the central processing unit and software.

This section is about companies that integrate parts and software from various other companies to make up fully working computer systems.

The japanese name literally means:

They died so completely, Googling "ICL" now has higher hits such as Imperial College London.

As of the 2020's, a slumbering giant.

But the pre-Internet impact of IBM was insane! Including notably: