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Let $D_g={\partial }_t+{\mathbf{u}}_g\cdot {\nabla }_h$, $\psi =\tilde{\Phi }/f_0$, and ${\mathbf{u}}_g=(-{\psi }_y,{\psi }_x,0)$. The hydrostatic and thermal equations combine to giveTaking the vertical curl of the horizontal momentum equations to leading quasi-geostrophic order givesThe log-pressure coordinate continuity equation gives ${\nabla }_h\cdot {\mathbf{u}}_{a,h}=-e^{z/H}{\partial }_z(e^{-z/H}w)$. Substitute $w=-f_0{D}_g{\psi }_z/N^2$. In commuting the vertical derivative with $D_g$, the extra term is ${\mathbf{u}}_{g,z}\cdot {\nabla }_h{\psi }_z=(-{\psi }_{yz},{\psi }_{xz})\cdot ({\psi }_{xz},{\psi }_{yz})=0$. Therefore the log-pressure quasi-geostrophic potential vorticity equation is

The required small parameters have distinct roles. The Rossby number ${ϵ}_R=U/(|f_0|L)$ makes inertial acceleration small relative to the leading geostrophic balance. The parameter ${ϵ}_{\beta }=\beta L/|f_0|$ lets that leading balance use a single $f_0$ while retaining the beta effect in the slower vorticity evolution. Finally, $\psi \sim UL$ and the thermal equation imply $w\sim |f_0|U^2/(N^{2}D)$. Density-weighted continuity has vertical derivative scale $1/\delta$, where $\delta =\min (D,H)$, so $|{\mathbf{u}}_{a,h}|\sim Lw/\delta$. The vertical-advection consistency criterion for log-pressure quasi-geostrophy is thusIt also controls the omitted vertical-advection ratio $wL/(UD)\sim {ϵ}_a\delta /D$. Small Rossby number alone would not ensure small ageostrophic flow for every choice of stratification and vertical scales.

For constant $N$, linearization about rest givesPutting $\psi =\mathrm{Re}[{\hat{\psi }}_c{e}^{z/(2H)}{e}^{i(kx+mz-\omega t)}]$ replaces the vertical operator by $-m^2-1/(4H^2)$. Consequently the Rossby wave in a log-pressure atmosphere has

For the forced half-space, substitution of the specified ansatz givesAssume $\beta >0$ and $k>0$, and define ${\omega }_{\ast }=-\beta k/[k^2+f_0^2/(4N^2{H}^2)]<0$.

If $\omega >0$ or $\omega <{\omega }_{\ast }$, then $m^2<0$. Boundedness excludes the growing solution and uniquely selects $\boxed{\hat{\chi }={\Psi }_b{e}^{-\sqrt{-m^2}z}}$. If $\omega ={\omega }_{\ast }$, boundedness excludes the linear-in-$z$ solution, leaving $\hat{\chi }={\Psi }_b$; this is the zero-vertical-wavenumber threshold.

If ${\omega }_{\ast }<\omega <0$, both oscillatory solutions are bounded. Boundedness alone does not give a unique propagating solution. With forcing at the bottom and no incident wave from above, impose an upward radiation condition. Sincepositive $m$ has upward group velocity. The outgoing solution is $\boxed{\hat{\chi }={\Psi }_b{e}^{imz},m=\sqrt{m^2}>0}$. The physical streamfunction includes the prescribed $e^{z/(2H)}$ density-weighting factor; it is the amplitude $\hat{\chi }$ that must remain bounded.

Thus the strict range for vertically propagating waves isAt $\omega =0$, the unforced steady interior equation requires $\beta {\psi }_x=0$, so a nonzero $k$ bottom streamfunction cannot have a time-independent solution of this ideal rest-state problem without additional dynamics.

Substitution of $e^{i(kx+ly-\omega t)}$ gives a homogeneous three-by-three system. Its determinant issoThe zero-frequency component is in geostrophic balance and carries all conserved $P$. The oscillatory components are inertia-gravity waves with zero $P$. For $K\ll |f|/c$, $\Omega \sim |f|$ and rotation produces an inertial oscillation; for $K\gg |f|/c$, $\Omega \sim cK$ and surface gravity dominates. The crossover length $c/|f|$ is the barotropic deformation radius.

At leading order as $\mathrm{Ro}\to 0$, horizontal geostrophic balance and vertical hydrostatic balance giveThe temperature equation givesMeanwhile ${\zeta }^{\prime }=p_{xx}^{\prime }+p_{yy}^{\prime }$. The leading vertical-vorticity equation is $D{\zeta }^{\prime }=w_z^{\prime }$. Since derivatives in $z$ do not commute with $D$,The $p_{xz}^{\prime }$ terms therefore cancel, leaving the conserved three-dimensional quasi-geostrophic potential vorticityNo normal flow at $y=0,1$ means $v^{\prime }=p_x^{\prime }=0$. At $z=0,1$, $w^{\prime }=0$, so

Assume a small Rossby number, a beta plane, and small fractional changesAt leading order, geostrophic balance givesExpanding the reciprocal depth in the shallow-water potential vorticity givesThis is the stated shallow-water quasi-geostrophic potential vorticity $P_g$. The term ${\nabla }^2\psi$ is the parcel's relative vorticity, while $-f_0^2\psi /(g{H}_0)=-\psi /L_D^2$ is vortex stretching caused by free-surface displacement, whereis the barotropic deformation radius.

For $h_b=\alpha y$, omit the irrelevant constant factor $f_0/H_0$. The active PV anomaly isLinearizing $Q_t+J(\psi ,Q)=0$ about rest and using $\psi \propto e^{i(kx+ly-\omega t)}$ gives the Topographic Rossby-wave dispersion relationA northward displacement raises planetary PV when $\beta >0$ and raises topographic PV when the bottom rises northward, $\alpha >0$. PV conservation then requires anticyclonic relative vorticity, producing westward phase propagation. A negative slope opposes $\beta$ and reverses propagation when $f_0\alpha /H_0<-\beta$.

Under a rigid lid, $h=H_0-h_b$ is fixed but need not be close to $H_0$. With $q=(f+{\nabla }^2\psi )/h(y)$, linearization of $Dq/Dt=0$ givesFor $h=H_0{e}^{\gamma y}$ and over a region where $f\simeq f_0$, plane waves obeyThe planetary-vorticity gradient dominates when $|\beta |\gg |f_0\gamma |$, while exponential depth variation dominates when $|f_0\gamma |\gg |\beta |$. If the variation of $f=f_0+\beta y$ across the region is retained, this is the corresponding local WKB approximation with effective gradient $\beta -f\gamma$.

Taking the vertical component of the curl of the momentum equation givesThe continuity equation gives ${\eta }_t+h_0\nabla \cdot \mathbf{u}=0$, and henceSince initially $\mathbf{u}=0$ and $\eta ={\eta }_0$,Taking the divergence of the momentum equation and usinggivesDifferentiate continuity in time and substitute the last two identities to obtain

Let the Rossby deformation radius beThe even, decaying steady solution ofwith continuous value and derivative at $x=\pm a$ isThe steady momentum balance is a geostrophic balance:Thus the flow is parallel to the two edges of the raised strip, in opposite $y$-directions on the two sides; for $f>0$, it points toward $+y$ on the left and $-y$ on the right. Its magnitude is concentrated within a few deformation radii of the edges.

For $u_x=0$ and $u_y=u_y(x)$, the material acceleration vanishes. The radial component of force balance isThereforeThe first term is the background Keplerian shear; the second is the geostrophic balance correction produced by the surface-density gradient.

Assume a steady, small-Rossby number surface boundary layer, neglect horizontal viscosity and nonlinear acceleration, take the pressure gradient to be independent of depth, impose no normal flow at the surface, and let the viscous stress vanish at $z=-h$. Subtract the depth-independent geostrophic balance from horizontal momentum. For the ageostrophic velocity,Integrating from $-h$ to $0$ and usinggives the Ekman transport

Depth-integrated mass conservation, with $w(0)=0$, givesHence the vertical velocity entering the ocean interior is the Ekman pumping velocityFor constant $f$ this reduces to

Let $D=H-h$ be the constant interior depth. Assume a homogeneous hydrostatic interior with depth-independent horizontal velocity, negligible friction, steady small-Rossby number flow, and no normal flow through the flat bottom. The vertical velocity varies from $w(-H)=0$ to $w(-h)=w_E$, so incompressible flow givesThe leading horizontal momentum balance is geostrophic balance:Taking its vertical curl on a beta plane givesCombining the last two equations yields Sverdrup balanceThe zonal velocity is then fixed, up to its value on one side boundary, byEquivalently, substituting part a gives the depth-integrated formA lateral boundary condition, normally supplied by matching to a boundary current, determines the remaining zonally uniform part of $u$.

Begin with the Boussinesq approximation primitive equations on a beta plane, decompose every field into a zonal mean and a disturbance, and average over longitude. The zonal momentum equation then contains the divergence of the eddy momentum flux $\overline{u^{\prime }{v}^{\prime }}$, while the mean density equation contains the divergence of the eddy density flux $\overline{{\rho }^{\prime }{v}^{\prime }}$. At small Rossby number, use geostrophic balance, hydrostatic pressure, thermal-wind balance, and the leading eddy equations to combine those fluxes.

Defineand introduce the residual mean circulationThe added eddy-induced velocity is nondivergent, soIt absorbs the eddy density-flux divergence into advection by the transformed circulation, giving

The mean zonal momentum equation becomeswhere the zonally averaged Eliassen–Palm flux in the meridional-vertical plane isThus the transformed Eulerian mean gathers the wave forcing into one flux divergence and makes density evolve under one residual circulation.

Define the residual-circulation stream function byThis satisfies residual mass conservation identically. LetThe momentum equation is

Differentiate geostrophic balance vertically and hydrostatic pressure meridionally to obtain thermal-wind balanceAfter a time derivative, the transformed density equation givesOn the other hand, the $z$ derivative of momentum givesEliminating ${\overline{u}}_{tz}$ yields the Eliassen equation for residual circulation

Put $l=\pi /L$. For the specified quasi-geostrophic streamfunction, the complex amplitudes of the disturbance fields areThe product of these two amplitudes is purely imaginary after one is conjugated, so its zonal mean vanishes:Consequently

Geostrophic balance and hydrostatic pressure giveThereforeSince $d{\rho }_s/dz=-{\rho }_0{N}^2/g$, the vertical Eliassen–Palm flux isThus it has the stated formwith

With no $y$ dependence, the linearized shallow water equations areTheir conserved linear potential-vorticity anomaly isbecause the initial velocity jump has derivative $2v_0\delta (x)$. The final steady state is in geostrophic balance, so $u=0$ and $fv=g{\eta }_x$. HenceTaking $f>0$ for definiteness and requiring decay at infinity gives

Initially, the potential energy is zero and, per unit length in $y$,For $L\gg R_d$, the final kinetic and potential energies are equal:Thus $E_{msteady}=\rho H_0{v}_0^2{R}_d$. During geostrophic adjustment, inertia-gravity waves carry the excess energy out of $|x|<L$; energy in that finite region is therefore not conserved. Their long-wave speed is $c=\sqrt{g{H}_0}$, so the adjustment of the stated region takes

The horizontal velocities $u$ and $v$ point east and north, $\eta$ is the displacement of the free surface from its mean level, $H_0$ is the undisturbed depth, $g$ is gravitational acceleration, and $f$ is the constant Coriolis parameter on an f-plane. The three linearized shallow water equations are horizontal momentum balance and mass conservation:They follow from the rotating Navier-Stokes equation by assuming an inviscid homogeneous layer, hydrostatic pressure, horizontal scales much larger than $H_0$, depth-independent horizontal velocity, a flat impermeable bottom, constant $f$, and small surface displacement and velocity so that nonlinear products are neglected.

In a steady state, geostrophic balance givesThe relative vorticity is $\zeta =v_x-u_y$. Expanding the shallow-water potential vorticity $(f+\zeta )/(H_0+\eta )$ to first order givesThus one convenient normalization of its disturbance isTaking the curl of momentum and using continuity shows $q_t=0$.

Initially $\zeta =0$, so conservation of the linear potential vorticity givesThe final flow is in geostrophic balance, henceConsequently the adjusted height solves the modified Helmholtz equationwhere $L_R$ is the Rossby deformation radius.

The initial condition is independent of $x$ and odd in $y$. The bounded solution that is continuously differentiable at $y=0$ isIt givesDuring geostrophic adjustment, the part of the initial energy incompatible with the conserved potential-vorticity distribution radiates away as inertia-gravity waves. The remaining current has width $O(L_R)$ and is geostrophically balanced.

The eastern wall has no normal flow, so the quasi-geostrophic streamfunction is constant there. Choose $\psi (L,y)=0$. Integrating the Sverdrup relation givesSince geostrophic balance gives $\psi =g\eta /f_0$,If this interior solution were extended to both walls, the west-minus-east height difference would be

The northward volume transport per unit meridional distance isThusThis is the basin-integrated form of Sverdrup balance.

The variables $u,v,w$ are eastward, northward, and upward velocity, $\varphi =p^{\prime }/{\rho }_0$ is the pressure perturbation divided by reference density, $\sigma$ is buoyancy, $N$ is the constant buoyancy frequency, and $\beta y$ is the equatorial approximation to the Coriolis parameter. The equations express, respectively:

Together they are the hydrostatic Boussinesq approximation for long equatorial waves.

The Rossby number compares inertial acceleration with Coriolis acceleration. For speed $U$, horizontal length $L$, and Coriolis parameter $f$, it is $\mathrm{Ro}=U/(|f|L)$. Small Rossby number supports geostrophic balance and the quasi-geostrophic approximation.