Positive-definite bilinear form ($B(v,v)>0(v\ne 0)$)

A real symmetric bilinear form is positive-definite when $B(v,v)>0$ for every nonzero vector. It defines an inner product and the associated norm $\sqrt{B(v,v)}$. Symmetry is part of this definition: positive diagonal values by themselves do not imply symmetry.^[ref]

The identity matrix $A=\mathrm{diag}(1,1)$ gives $B(v,w)=v_1{w}_1+v_2{w}_2$ and $B(v,v)=v_1^2+v_2^2$. For $v=(3,4)$ this is $25$, giving norm $5$. A weighted example, $A=\mathrm{diag}(4,1)$, gives norm $\sqrt{4x^2+y^2}$: the first coordinate costs twice as much in length. Such inner products let geometry assign different weights to different directions.

Every positive-definite bilinear form is nondegenerate: a vector in its radical of a bilinear form has $B(v,v)=0$, so positivity forces $v=0$. The converse fails, as $\mathrm{diag}(1,-1)$ shows. Even positivity of the associated quadratic form does not force a general bilinear form to be symmetric: $A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 1\\ -1& 1\end{array}\right)$ has $v^{T}Av=x^2+y^2$ but $B(e_1,e_2)=1$ and $B(e_2,e_1)=-1$.

The complex Killing form is not positive-definite on the entire complex Cartan subalgebra; its restriction to the Euclidean subspace of a Cartan subalgebra is a real positive-definite form.

The strict positivity of a quadratic form on every nonzero vector. A real symmetric matrix has positive definiteness exactly when its associated quadratic form does, making it a positive-definite matrix. A Hermitian form is positive definite when its value on $(v,v)$ is real and strictly positive for every nonzero vector.

Think of a positive-definite quadratic form as an energy cost for a displacement: every direction costs something, and zero cost identifies the origin. For example, the real symmetric matrixis a positive-definite matrix because the two squares can vanish together only at $(0,0)$. The mixed term couples the coordinates, but cannot overwhelm their positive contributions: $q(1,1)=8$ and $q(1,-1)=4$. The graph is a bowl, and its positive level sets are ellipses with axes along the eigenvectors, rather than along the original coordinates.

The real and complex settings require different symmetry assumptions. For a real symmetric matrix use $q(x)=x^{T}Ax$ with $x\in {\mathbb{R}}^n$; for a complex Hermitian matrix use $q(z)=z^{\ast }Az$ with $z\in {\mathbb{C}}^n$, where $z^{\ast }$ is the conjugate transpose. The latter expression is real, so strict positivity is meaningful. A complex quadratic form such as $z_1^2+z_2^2$ has no such positivity: it vanishes at $(1,i)$ and takes negative real values at $(i,0)$. A Hermitian form uses complex conjugation, which changes this example to $|z_1{|}^2+|z_2{|}^2$.

For a real matrix $M$ without a symmetry hypothesis, its quadratic form depends only on its symmetric part of a matrix:Positive eigenvalues of $M$ alone do not establish positive definiteness of this quadratic form. For example, $M=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 4\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)$ has both eigenvalues equal to $1$, yet $q(1,-1)=1-4+1=-2$. The relevant test is positivity of the symmetric part of a matrix, not the spectrum of an arbitrary matrix.^[ref]

For a real symmetric matrix $A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ b& c\end{array}\right)$, completing the square gives, when $a\ne 0$,Thus $A$ is a positive-definite matrix exactly when $a>0$ and $\det A=ac-b^2>0$. For necessity, test $(1,0)$ first, then $(-b/a,1)$; for sufficiency, the displayed two positive squares give the result. These are the first two leading principal minors in Sylvester's criterion. A positive determinant alone is insufficient: $-I_2$ has determinant $1$ but is a negative-definite matrix.

The eigenvalues provide an equivalent test under the same real-symmetric hypothesis:The spectral theorem for real symmetric matrices supplies coordinates in an orthonormal basis in which $q={\lambda }_{+}{u}^2+{\lambda }_{-}{v}^2$. More generally, a complex Hermitian matrix has an orthonormal eigenbasis and $q(z)={\sum }_j{\lambda }_j|w_j{|}^2$, so it is a Hermitian positive-definite matrix exactly when every eigenvalue is positive. This is a short proof outline: test the eigenvectors for necessity, and sum the positive squared absolute values for sufficiency.^[ref]

For a real positive semidefinite matrix, the condition is instead $q(x,y)\ge 0$ for all vectors, equivalent here to $a\ge 0$, $c\ge 0$, and $ac-b^2\ge 0$. If $a>0$, the same completing the square proves this; if $a=0$, nonnegativity forces $b=0$ and leaves $c{y}^2$ with $c\ge 0$. Merely replacing the strict inequalities on the leading principal minors by nonstrict ones fails: $\mathrm{diag}(0,-1)$ has both leading principal minors zero yet gives $q(0,1)=-1$. An indefinite quadratic form takes both positive and negative values; its real symmetric matrix has eigenvalues of both signs.

Vary the coupling in the opening example. The eigenvectors $e_{+}=(1,1{)}^T/\sqrt{2}$ and $e_{-}=(1,-1{)}^T/\sqrt{2}$ form a fixed orthonormal eigenbasis, with eigenvalues $3+t$ and $3-t$. Writing a vector as $u{e}_{+}+v{e}_{-}$ givesFor $|t|<3$, both directions cost energy and $A_t$ is a positive-definite matrix. At $t=3$, the quadratic form is $6u^2$: the entire line spanned by $e_{-}$ has zero energy, and $A_t$ is a singular positive semidefinite matrix. At $t=-3$, the flat line is instead spanned by $e_{+}$. For $|t|>3$, the quadratic form is an indefinite quadratic form; one direction lowers the energy without bound as its displacement grows. At $t=4$, for instance, $q_t(e_{+})=7$ while $q_t(e_{-})=-1$.

The geometric transition is precise. For $|t|<3$, $q_t=1$ is an ellipse. At $t=3$, it consists of the two parallel lines $u=\pm 1/\sqrt{6}$, extending freely in the zero-energy direction. For $t>3$, it is a hyperbola. The boundary case retains nonnegative energy but loses both the bounded positive level sets and the unique zero-energy vector.

For a real positive-definite matrix $A$ in finite dimension, write $A=Q\Lambda Q^T$ by the spectral theorem for real symmetric matrices. In the coordinates in an orthonormal basis $w=Q^{T}x$, the positive level set $q(x)=k$ becomesThis is an ellipsoid, with semi-major and semi-minor axes in two dimensions forming an ellipse; each semi-axis has length $r_j=\sqrt{k/{\lambda }_j}$ and direction given by the corresponding eigenvector. In the opening example, the shorter semi-axis is $\sqrt{k}/2$ along $e_{+}$, while the longer is $\sqrt{k/2}$ along $e_{-}$. A stiffer direction, meaning a larger eigenvalue, reaches the same energy at a smaller displacement. The ratio of longest to shortest semi-axis is $\sqrt{{\lambda }_{\max }/{\lambda }_{\min }}$, the square root of the spectral condition number of a positive-definite matrix.^[ref]

Strict positivity matters because ${\lambda }_{\min }>0$ givesHence a fixed positive level set cannot extend arbitrarily far. The Cholesky decomposition $A=L{L}^T$ gives another view: $q(x)=\Vert L^{T}x{\Vert }^2$, so the ellipsoid is the inverse image of a sphere under an invertible linear map. A singular positive semidefinite matrix has a nonzero kernel; adding a kernel vector preserves its quadratic form, so any nonempty positive level set is unbounded. These statements concern finite dimension; the positive definite symmetric operator entry explains why strict positivity alone need not give a uniform lower bound on an infinite-dimensional Hilbert space.

Let $A$ be a real positive-definite matrix and minimize the displayed quadratic function over all of ${\mathbb{R}}^n$. Its gradient is $Ax-b$, so its only stationary point solves the linear system $A{x}_{\ast }=b$. The matrix is an invertible matrix, making this solution exist and be unique. Completing the square around that solution proves the stronger global statement:The quadratic function is strictly convex, and its level sets above the minimum are translated ellipsoids. Positivity therefore turns solving a linear system into locating the bottom of a bowl.^[ref]

For the opening matrix $A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}3& 1\\ 1& 3\end{array}\right)$, take $b=(1,1{)}^T$ and $c=0$. Then $A^{-1}=\frac{1}{8}\left(\begin{array}{cc}3& -1\\ -1& 3\end{array}\right)$, $x_{\ast }=(1/4,1/4{)}^T$, and $f(x_{\ast })=-1/4$. Every displacement $h$ raises the value by $\frac{1}{2}{h}^{T}Ah$; along the unit eigenvectors $e_{+}$ and $e_{-}$ the increases are respectively $2s^2$ and $s^2$ for displacement $s{e}_{+}$ or $s{e}_{-}$.

For a singular positive semidefinite matrix, a solution of $Ax=b$ is still a global minimizer, but adding any kernel vector gives another. If $b$ is outside the image of a linear map defined by $A$, some kernel vector $v$ has $b^{T}v\ne 0$, and $f(sv)=c-s{b}^{T}v$ is unbounded below. For an indefinite quadratic form, a negative eigenvalue gives a direction along which the quadratic term tends to $-\infty$ regardless of $b$. Thus a stationary point alone does not establish a minimum. The same energy-difference identity extends to the quadratic variational principle for a symmetric positive operator, with additional existence hypotheses in infinite dimension.