Power-law opacity radiative envelope (${\nabla }_{\mathrm{rad}}=P^{n+1}/(C{T}^{n+s+4})$)

A thin radiative envelope with constant enclosed mass, luminosity and mean molecular weight, ideal gas pressure and opacity $\kappa ={\kappa }_0{\rho }^n{T}^{-s}$ has $a=n+1$, $b=n+s+4$, and $C=16\pi a_{\mathrm{rad}}cGM/[3{\kappa }_0(\mu m_u/k_B{)}^{n}L]$. Combining radiative diffusion in a star with hydrostatic equilibrium gives ${\nabla }_{\mathrm{rad}}=P^a/(C{T}^b)$, so $P^a-P_0^a=(aC/b)(T^b-T_0^b)$ for nonzero exponents. Zero exponents give logarithmic limits. The model must be stopped or modified if the Schwarzschild criterion predicts convection.

For $P=C(T^b+K{)}^{1/p}$ with $p=n+1$ and $b=4+n+m$, the logarithmic radiative temperature gradient is $(p/b)(1+K/T^b)$. At a marginal boundary with an efficient ideal-gas convective envelope, the Schwarzschild criterion equates it to $(\gamma -1)/\gamma$. Hence $K=T_b^b[(b/p)(\gamma -1)/\gamma -1]$. The notation $K=T_0^b$ with real positive $T_0$ requires a nonnegative bracket. Vanishing $p$ or $b$ needs the corresponding logarithmic integration instead of this power form.

In a negligible-mass, non-burning stellar envelope with $P=K{T}^{5/2}$ and Kramers' opacity law $\kappa ={\kappa }_1\rho T^{-7/2}$, the stellar radiative temperature gradient is ${\nabla }_{\mathrm{rad}}=3{\kappa }_1\mu K^{2}L/(16\pi ac\mathcal{R}GM{T}^{7/2})$. It decreases inward as the temperature rises, so the inner edge of efficient convection is where it equals $2/5$. If outer matching gives $K\propto g^{1/2}{T}_e^{-2\beta -5/2}$, then $T_b^{7/2}\propto K^{2}L/M\propto T_e^{-4\beta -1}$, since $g=GM/R^2$ and $L=4\pi R^2\sigma T_e^4$. Hence $T_b\propto T_e^{-(8\beta +2)/7}$.