Electoral system criteria refer to the principles and standards used to evaluate and design electoral systems. These criteria help ensure that electoral processes are fair, effective, and representative of the electorate's preferences. Here are some key criteria commonly used to assess electoral systems: 1. **Representativeness**: The extent to which the electoral outcome reflects the preferences of the electorate. A good electoral system should translate votes into seats in a way that mirrors the distribution of public support for different parties or candidates.

The Majumdar–Ghosh (MG) model is a theoretical model in condensed matter physics and statistical mechanics that describes a one-dimensional system of interacting spins. It is named after the physicists S. Majumdar and D. Ghosh, who introduced this model in the context of studying quantum spin chains. The model consists of a linear chain of spins (quantum magnetic moments) with a specific interaction pattern.

The term "minorities" generally refers to groups of people who are differentiated from the larger or dominant group within a society based on characteristics such as ethnicity, race, religion, language, or cultural heritage. Minorities may have a smaller population size or relatively less power, influence, or representation in social, political, or economic spheres compared to the majority group.

Unanimity refers to a state of agreement among all members of a group. When a decision or opinion is reached unanimously, it means that all individuals involved support the same conclusion or decision without any dissent or disagreement. This concept is often used in various contexts, such as in decision-making processes, legal settings, and organizational governance, where reaching a unanimous agreement is seen as ideal for ensuring collective support and legitimacy.

Voting theorists are scholars and researchers who study the principles and dynamics of voting and electoral systems. This field, often situated at the intersection of political science, economics, mathematics, and social choice theory, investigates how different voting methods and rules can affect outcomes, representation, and the decision-making process in democratic systems.

Bertrand's ballot theorem is a result in combinatorics related to voting and elections. It can be stated as follows: Suppose that in an election, candidate A receives \( a \) votes and candidate B receives \( b \) votes, with \( a > b \). If the votes are counted one by one in a random order, the probability that candidate A is always ahead in the vote count throughout the counting process (i.e.

Jacques Tits is a prominent French mathematician known for his contributions to various fields, including geometry and group theory. He was born on August 12, 1930, and is particularly noted for his work in algebraic groups, group theory, and related areas.

Condorcet efficiency refers to a property of voting systems and electoral mechanisms in the context of social choice theory. It is named after the 18th-century French philosopher and mathematician Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, the Marquis de Condorcet, who developed ideas related to majority voting and collective decision-making.

Dollar voting is a concept in economics and consumer behavior that refers to the idea that consumers express their preferences and influence market outcomes through their spending decisions. Essentially, when individuals choose to spend their money on certain products or services, they are "voting" for those items with their dollars. The principle behind dollar voting suggests that the choices consumers make reflect their values, preferences, and priorities, which in turn signals to producers and businesses what to supply.

Duverger's law is a political theory that proposes that single-member plurality electoral systems (often referred to as "first-past-the-post" systems) tend to favor a two-party system. This concept was formulated by French political scientist Maurice Duverger in the mid-20th century.

The efficiency gap is a metric used to measure the degree of partisan gerrymandering in electoral district maps. It quantifies the difference in how effectively each political party converts votes into seats in a legislative body. Specifically, it calculates the number of "wasted votes" for each party and uses this information to determine how efficiently each party is able to gain representation based on the votes it receives.

Electoral fusion is a voting system practice where candidates from multiple political parties can appear on the ballot for the same office under multiple party affiliations. This means that a candidate can be listed as the nominee of more than one political party at the same time. This practice allows voters to express their support for a candidate while also signaling support for a particular party.

Issue voting refers to the practice where voters base their electoral choices primarily on specific issues or policy preferences rather than on party affiliation, candidate personality, or other factors. In issue voting, individuals evaluate candidates or parties based on how closely their positions align with the voter's own views on significant topics, such as the economy, healthcare, education, environment, social justice, and foreign policy.

The term "majority" generally refers to more than half of a total number of votes, members, or elements in a particular context. It can be applied in various fields such as politics, law, and sociology. Here are a few common contexts in which "majority" is used: 1. **Voting**: In an election or a decision-making process, a majority means that a candidate, proposal, or decision receives more than 50% of the votes cast.

Majority rule is a governance principle or decision-making process whereby the option or choice that receives more than half (more than 50%) of the votes or support is selected as the outcome. This concept is often used in democratic systems, elections, and various collective decision-making scenarios. The idea is that the preferences of the majority of voters or group members should determine the decisions or policies that are implemented.

A minority group refers to a social group that is fewer in number compared to the dominant or majority group within a society. Minority groups can be distinguished based on various characteristics, including ethnicity, race, religion, language, gender, sexual orientation, or other traits. Key aspects of minority groups include: 1. **Size**: They constitute a smaller proportion of the overall population compared to the dominant group.

A "sneaker wave" is a type of large ocean wave that unexpectedly surges onto shore, often catching beachgoers off guard. These waves can be more powerful and larger than the regular waves in the area, and they can occur without warning. Sneaker waves can pull people, animals, and objects back into the ocean, posing a significant risk of drowning or injury.

Mr. Zog's Sex Wax is a brand of surfboard wax that has become well-known not only for its quality but also for its humorous and catchy branding. Founded in the 1970s by Zog (a nickname for the brand's creator), it is designed to provide grip for surfers on their boards, helping prevent slipping while paddling and riding waves. The wax is made from a blend of paraffin and other materials that create a non-slip surface.

Oiticica oil, also known as Oiticica oil or Oiticica nut oil, is a natural oil extracted from the seeds of the Oiticica tree (Licania rigida), which is native to Brazil and other parts of South America. The oil is known for its rich content of fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, linoleic acid, and palmitic acid, which contribute to its emollient and moisturizing properties.