Lattice energy refers to the amount of energy that is released when ions in a gas phase come together to form a solid ionic compound. It can also be viewed as the energy required to separate one mole of an ionic solid into its gaseous ions. Lattice energy is a measure of the strength of the forces between the ions in an ionic solid.

In crystallography, the R-factor (or R-value) is a quantitative measure used to assess how well a proposed model of a crystal structure matches the observed X-ray diffraction data. It is crucial for evaluating the quality of the structure determined from X-ray crystallography.

A thermal ellipsoid is a three-dimensional geometric representation used in crystallography and molecular biology to visualize the thermal motion of atoms in a crystal structure. It illustrates the atomic displacement due to thermal vibrations, which are influenced by temperature. Each atom in a crystalline material oscillates around its equilibrium position, and the extent of this motion can be described by an ellipsoid. The shape and orientation of the ellipsoid provide information about the distribution and amplitude of atomic vibrations.

Thermal laser epitaxy (TLE) is a specialized growth technique used in materials science and semiconductor fabrication to create thin films or heterostructures with precise control over their composition and structure. The method typically involves the use of a focused laser beam to locally heat a substrate or a precursor material, thereby enabling the growth of crystalline films on the substrate based on thermally induced reactions.

A puncheon is a unit of measurement that can refer to both a volume and a weight, depending on the context. 1. **Volume**: In terms of volume, a puncheon is typically equivalent to around 120 gallons (approximately 450 liters) in the context of liquids such as wine or beer. Specifically, in the wine industry, a puncheon often refers to a barrel that holds a certain volume of wine or spirits.

"Little Ashes" is a 2008 biographical drama film directed by Paul Morrison. The film is set in the 1920s and explores the relationship between two prominent figures of the Spanish surrealist movement: the painter Salvador Dalí, played by Robert Pattinson, and the poet Federico García Lorca, portrayed by Javier Beltrán.

An anker is a unit of measurement for large quantities of work or energy in electrical systems, specifically in the context of wrought iron rods or bars. It is mainly used in certain industries and regions but is not a standard SI unit.

English units, also known as Imperial units or customary units, refer to a system of measurement that is primarily used in the United States and a few other countries. This system is characterized by a variety of units for measuring length, weight, volume, and temperature. Some of the most common English units include: - **Length**: Inches, feet, yards, and miles. - **Weight**: Ounces, pounds, and tons.

An octave is a unit of measurement used in music to describe the interval between two frequencies. Specifically, an octave is the interval between one musical pitch and another with double its frequency. For example, if one note has a frequency of 440 Hz (the standard pitch for the note A above middle C), the note one octave higher would have a frequency of 880 Hz, and the note one octave lower would have a frequency of 220 Hz.

Justine Cassell is a prominent figure in the field of computer-mediated communication and human-computer interaction. She is known for her work in developing technologies that enable more natural and effective communication between humans and computers, particularly through the use of interactive agents and virtual characters. Cassell’s research often focuses on how these technologies can enhance social interaction, education, and other applications.

United States cyber-diplomacy refers to the strategic use of diplomatic tools and negotiations by the U.S. government to influence, shape, and manage international relations in the realm of cyberspace. This encompasses a broad range of issues, including cybersecurity, cybercrime, internet governance, and the protection of digital rights. Key aspects of U.S. cyber-diplomacy include: 1. **International Agreements and Norms**: The U.S.

A pendulum saw is a type of power saw that utilizes a pendulum-like motion to cut through materials, typically wood. It features a blade that is mounted on a swinging arm, which moves back and forth in a pendulum motion to make cuts. Pendulum saws are often used in woodworking applications for tasks such as cross-cutting and ripping lumber. They can also be employed in other materials, depending on the type of blade installed.

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and servers that communicate with each other using standardized protocols. It allows users to access and share information, send and receive messages, and connect with others across the world in real time. The Internet supports a wide range of activities, including browsing websites, sending emails, streaming videos, and participating in social media.

Cybersectarianism refers to the phenomenon where sectarian divisions—often based on religion, ethnicity, or ideology—are exacerbated and amplified through online platforms and social media. This term is particularly relevant in contexts where digital communication has enabled the rapid spread of sectarian narratives, hate speech, and extremist ideologies.

"Discoveries" by Johann Elert Bode refers to his work, particularly his contributions to astronomy and celestial mechanics. Bode, a German astronomer who lived from 1747 to 1826, is well-known for Bode's Law (or the Titius-Bode Law), which is an empirical formula that predicts the spacing of planets in the solar system. It suggests a relationship between the distance of planets from the Sun and their ordinal number from the Sun.

"Critique of Cynical Reason" (originally "Kritik der zynischen Vernunft") is a philosophical work by the German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk, published in 1983. The text is an exploration of contemporary forms of cynicism, particularly how they relate to modernity, politics, and culture.

The 21st century has seen a number of notable Czech mathematicians contributing to various fields of mathematics, including number theory, algebra, topology, and applied mathematics. Some prominent figures include: 1. **Jan Šebestík** - Known for his work in mathematical logic and set theory. 2. **Petr P. Šafářik** - Engaged in various mathematical research areas, including combinatorics and graph theory.

"Czech statisticians" generally refers to statisticians who are from the Czech Republic or those who specialize in statistics within the context of Czech data, research, or applications. Statisticians in the Czech Republic may work in various fields, including government, academia, healthcare, social sciences, business, and more. They engage in collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to inform policies, conduct research, and support decision-making processes.

"Mathematicians from Prague" could refer to a few different topics, depending on the context. It might refer to: 1. **Historical Contributions**: Prague has been home to various influential mathematicians throughout history. This includes figures from the Czech Republic's rich tradition in mathematics and sciences.

Antonín Václav Šourek was a notable Czech composer and conductor, particularly active in the early to mid-20th century. He is recognized for his contributions to the field of classical music in the Czech Republic, though detailed information about his life and works may not be as widely available as figures like Dvořák or Smetana.