Atheism Updated 2025-07-16
Atom Updated 2025-07-16
Much before atoms were thought to be "experimentally real", chemists from the 19th century already used "conceptual atoms" as units for the proportions observed in macroscopic chemical reactions, e.g. . The thing is, there was still the possibility that those proportions were made up of something continuous that for some reason could only combine in the given proportions, so the atoms could only be strictly consider calculatory devices pending further evidence.
Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) chapter 5 "The reality of molecules" has some good mentions. Notably, physicists generally came to believe in atoms earlier than chemists, because the phenomena they were most interested in, e.g. pressure in the ideal gas law, and then Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics just scream atoms more loudly than chemical reactions, as they saw that these phenomena could be explained to some degree by traditional mechanics of little balls.
Confusion around the probabilistic nature of the second law of thermodynamics was also used as a physical counterargument by some. Pais mentions that Wilhelm Ostwald notably argued that the time reversibility of classical mechanics + the second law being a fundamental law of physics (and not just probabilistic, which is the correct hypothesis as we now understand) must imply that atoms are not classic billiard balls, otherwise the second law could be broken.
Pais also mentions that a big "chemical" breakthrough was isomers suggest that atoms exist.
Very direct evidence evidence:
- Brownian motion mathematical analysis in 1908. Brownian motion just makes it too clear that liquids cannot be continuous... if they were, there would obviously be no Brownian motion, full stop.
- X-ray crystallography: it sees crystal latices
Less direct evidence:
- 1874 Isomers suggest that atoms exist
- kinetic theory of gases seems to explain certain phenomena really well
Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) page 40 mentions several methods that Einstein used to "prove" that atoms were real. Perhaps the greatest argument of all is that several unrelated methods give the same estimates of atom size/mass:
- from 1905:
- in light quantum paper
- enabled by experimental work of Wilhelm Pfeffer on producing rigid membranes
- 1911: blueness of the sky and critical opalescence
Classiq Updated 2025-07-16
Cyrus the Great Updated 2025-07-16
Electron on helium quantum computer Updated 2025-07-16
FaceMash Updated 2025-07-16
Goldstone's theorem Updated 2025-07-16
gwern.net Updated 2025-07-16
One thing that annoys Ciro Santilli about that website are the footnote overload. Ciro likes linear things.
List of High-temperature superconductors Updated 2025-07-16
Matrix representation of a Hermitian form Updated 2025-07-16
Meson Updated 2025-07-16
composite particle made up of an even number of elementary particles, most commonly one particle and one anti-particle.
This can be contrasted with mesons, which have an odd number of elementary particles, as mentioned at baryon vs meson vs lepton.
Software license that starts closed and becomes open once a certain amount of money is raised Updated 2025-07-16
This is an interesting licensing model that might just scale.
Stockfish (chess) Updated 2025-07-16
CLI program implementing Universal Chess Interface: www.reddit.com/r/ComputerChess/comments/b6rdez/commandline_options_for_stockfish/
How to actually play against it: chess.stackexchange.com/questions/4353/how-to-install-stockfish-on-ubuntu So hard!
Money creation Updated 2025-07-16
Quantum dot quantum computer Updated 2025-07-16
Turing machine decider Updated 2025-07-16
Of course, because what we know about the halting problem, there cannot exist a single decider that decides all Turing machines.
E.g. The Busy Beaver Challenge has a set of deciders clearly published, which decide a large part of BB(5). Their proposed deciders are listed at: discuss.bbchallenge.org/c/deciders/5 and actually applied ones at: bbchallenge.org.
But there are deciders that can decide large classes of turing machines.
Many (all/most?) deciders are based on simulation of machines with arbitrary cutoff hyperparameters, e.g. the cutoff space/time of a Turing machine cycler decider.
The simplest and most obvious example is the Turing machine cycler decider
Ciro's Edict #4 Not work Updated 2025-07-16
Some further comments at: Section "Cataclysm: Dark Days Ahead".
Ciro's Edict #5 Improve header summary display Updated 2025-07-16
Before
. After
. Added font awesome icons. github.com/ourbigbook/ourbigbook/issues/151
Didn't manage to subset, but so be it for now: stackoverflow.com/questions/62395038/how-can-i-export-only-one-character-from-ttf-woff-file-to-avoid-load-unnecessa/71197892#71197892
Trapped ion quantum computer Updated 2025-07-16
TODO understand.
Trapping Ions for Quantum Computing by Diana Craik (2019)
Source. A basic introduction, but very concrete, with only a bit of math it might be amazing:Sounds complicated, several technologies need to work together for that to work! Videos of ions moving are from www.physics.ox.ac.uk/research/group/ion-trap-quantum-computing.
- youtu.be/j1SKprQIkyE?t=217 you need ultra-high vacuum
- youtu.be/j1SKprQIkyE?t=257 you put the Calcium on a "calcium oven", heat it up, and make it evaporates a little bit
- youtu.be/j1SKprQIkyE?t=289 you need lasers. You shine the laser on the calcium atom to eject one of the two valence electrons from it. Though e.g. Universal Quantum is trying to do away with them, because alignment for thousands or millions of particles would be difficult.
- youtu.be/j1SKprQIkyE?t=518 keeping all surrounding electrodes positive would be unstable. So they instead alternate electrode quickly between plus and minus
- youtu.be/j1SKprQIkyE?t=643 talks about the alternative, of doing it just with electrodes on a chip, which is easier to manufacture. They fly at about 100 microns above the trap. And you can have multiple ions per chip.
- youtu.be/j1SKprQIkyE?t=1165 using microwaves you can flip the spin of the electron, or put it into a superposition. From more reading, we understand that she is talking about a hyperfine transition, which often happen in the microwave area.
- youtu.be/j1SKprQIkyE?t=1210 talks about making quantum gates. You have to put the ions into a magnetic field at one of the two resonance frequencies of the system. Presumably what is meant is an inhomogenous magnetic field as in the Stern-Gerlach experiment.This is the hard and interesting part. It is not clear why the atoms become coupled in any way. Is it due to electric repulsion?She is presumably describing the Cirac–Zoller CNOT gate.
How To Trap Particles in a Particle Accelerator by the Royal Institution (2016)
Source. Demonstrates trapping pollen particles in an alternating field.- youtu.be/lJOuPmI--5c?t=1601 Cirac–Zoller CNOT gate was the first 2 qubit gate. Explains it more or less.
Introduction to quantum optics by Peter Zoller (2018)
Source. THE Zoller from Cirac–Zoller CNOT gate talks about his gate.- www.youtube.com/watch?v=W3l0QPEnaq0&t=427s shows that the state is split between two options: center of mass mode (ions move in same direction), and strechmode (atoms move in opposite directions)
- youtu.be/W3l0QPEnaq0?t=658 shows a schematic of the experiment
Ciro's Edict #5 OurBigBook Library tested on PostgreSQL Updated 2025-07-16
After something broke on the website due to SQLite vs PostgreSQL inconsistencies and took me a day to figure it out, I finally decided to update the test system so that
OURBIGBOOK_POSTGRES=true npm test
will run the tests on PostgreSQL.Originally, these were being run only on SQLite, which is the major use case for OurBigBook CLI, which came before the website.
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