Let P,Q be continuous orthogonal projection matrices of equal rank on a common trivial complex vector bundle, with the displayed bound at every base point. Restricting Q to the image of P is injective: if Qv=0, then $v=(P-Q)v$ contradicts the norm bound unless v=0. Equal dimensions give a continuously invertible vector bundle isomorphism. Compactness applies this observation uniformly to a homotopy of image planes.

The contractible universal frame bundle gives ${\pi }_4(B{U}_2)\cong {\pi }_3(U_2)$ and simple connectedness of $B{U}_2$. The determinant fibration $S{U}_2\to U_2\to S^1$ identifies ${\pi }_3(U_2)$ with ${\pi }_3(S{U}_2)$. Since $S{U}_2\cong S^3$, this is $\mathbb{Z}$. Hence the classification of complex vector bundles by a Grassmannian gives the displayed bijection of isomorphism classes; fixed-rank classes do not acquire a group operation from Whitney sum.

A symplectomorphism of a closed symplectic surface carries the complementary components of a separating simple closed curve to those of its image, preserving their unordered symplectic areas. On the unit sphere a latitude at height $h$ has complementary areas $2\pi (1-h)$ and $2\pi (1+h)$. Thus the equator cannot be sent to any nonequatorial latitude.

For symmetric nonnegative $D$ with zero diagonal, a centered Euclidean realization implies $D_{ij}^2=G_{ii}+G_{jj}-2G_{ij}$ and hence the displayed double-centering identity. Conversely, if the double-centered matrix is positive semidefinite, factor it as $X{X}^T$. Its reconstructed squared distances equal the original squared distances: their difference has zero double-centering, so is of the form $1a^T+a{1}^T$; the zero diagonal forces $a=0$. The minimum exact embedding dimension is $\mathrm{rank}G$.

With $D=\sum a_i{F}_i$ and $\sum q_i{a}_i=1$, the dual toric lattice is $M=\{m\in {\mathbb{Z}}^{n+1}:\sum q_i{m}_i=0\}$. A torus character ${\chi }^m$ is a section of $rD$ exactly when $b_i=m_i+r{a}_i\ge 0$. The vector $b$ has weighted degree $\sum q_i{b}_i=r$, and the correspondence ${\chi }^m\mapsto X^b$ is bijective on bases in every degree and respects multiplication. This gives the displayed graded-ring isomorphism, even when $D$ is a non-Cartier Weil divisor.

For smooth projective varieties $X,Y$, pull back Chow classes from the two factors and take their intersection product on $X\times Y$. This gives the external product and a graded map ${\mathrm{CH}}^{\ast }(X)\otimes {\mathrm{CH}}^{\ast }(Y)\to {\mathrm{CH}}^{\ast }(X\times Y)$. Unlike the cohomological Künneth theorem, it need not generate every class of the product.

The probabilities that a random chordal filling avoids each admissible compact H-hull away from zero determine its law as an unparameterized closed set. Each point of its complement can be joined to the relevant real boundary arc through the complement and lies in a thin rational polygonal tube attached to that arc. These countably many hull tests recover the complement. Their joint avoidance events are tested by filled finite unions; if a union separates zero from infinity, the joint avoidance event is empty. Otherwise connectedness makes avoidance of the union equivalent to avoidance of its filled hull. Thus individual hull probabilities give every finite joint indicator distribution and determine the random complement.

For a smooth genus one curve with origin $O$, the map $P\mapsto [(P)-(O)]$ identifies geometric points with the degree-zero Picard group of a curve. Riemann-Roch theorem gives a unique effective representative for each divisor class of degree one: its Riemann-Roch space has dimension one. A line cuts a plane cubic in a divisor linearly equivalent to $3(O)$ when $O$ is the Weierstrass flex. The two successive line intersections in the chord-and-tangent group law therefore give addition of the corresponding divisor classes. Associativity follows by injectivity of the identification and associativity of divisor-class addition, including tangent intersection multiplicities.

Assume the elliptic-curve discriminant is nonzero. Then $b\ne 0$, and tangency at $P$ gives $2P=(-b,b(a-1))$ and $-2P=(-b,0)$. The line through $P,2P$ has slope $1-a$ and gives $3P=(1-a,a-b-1)$, $-3P=(1-a,(1-a{)}^2)$. Consequently $P$ has exact order four when $a=1$, exact order five when $a=b+1$, and exact order six when $b=(a-1)(2-a)$. The nonsingularity condition excludes the zero values of $b$ that would otherwise invalidate these torsion conclusions.

The equality holds when an alternating unit-norm spline $s_{\ast }$ has as many ordered extremal sites as the dimension, and those sites satisfy the Schoenberg–Whitney theorem. For every admissible set, sampling has operator norm at most one, giving $\kappa (\mathcal{S})\le \Vert A_{\mathbf{x}}^{-1}{\Vert }_{\infty }$. At the alternating sites the checkerboard inverse of a totally nonnegative matrix identifies each inverse absolute row sum with the magnitude of the corresponding coefficient of $s_{\ast }$. The Chebyshev spline coefficient and dual norm equality therefore gives equality. This minimizes amplification into B-spline coefficients; it does not by itself prove optimality for the distinct Lebesgue constant of interpolation.

Fix the Bernstein filtration on the Weyl algebra. Two good filtrations of a module are bounded shifts of one another: $F_{i}M\subseteq G_{i+c}M$ and conversely. If an operator of degree $d$ has symbol annihilating ${\mathrm{gr}}_{F}M$, its $r$th power lowers the expected filtration degree by $r$. For $r>2c$, comparison of filtrations forces the same power of its symbol to annihilate ${\mathrm{gr}}_{G}M$. Reversing the roles gives equality of the radical annihilator ideals and hence equality of support of a module. The algebra filtration is held fixed; changing between order and Bernstein filtrations need not preserve the same variety.

Let $H\le G$ be finite abelian and let $\chi :H\to \mathbb{T}$ be a character of a finite abelian group. To adjoin $x\in G$, let $d$ be the least positive integer with $dx\in H$ and choose a complex number $z$ of modulus one with $z^d=\chi (dx)$. Then $\tilde{\chi }(h+jx)=\chi (h)z^j$ is well-defined and extends $\chi$ to $H+⟨x⟩$. There are exactly $d$ choices, corresponding to the $d$ roots. Iterating proves character extension to $G$, proves that $G$ has exactly $|G|$ characters, and proves separation of points by extending a primitive character of the cyclic subgroup generated by a nonzero point. No structure theorem is needed for this argument.

A multiplicative character is a group homomorphism from a finite field's multiplicative group of a finite field to the complex unit circle. A generator of the cyclic multiplicative group of a finite field produces a character of every order dividing $q-1$. Extend every such character to zero by value zero, including the trivial multiplicative character, when using cyclotomic indicator formulas.

For three independent uniform points on a sphere, condition on the central angle $\theta$ between the first two. The third point makes acute angles with both exactly when it lies in the intersection of their positive hemispheres. That intersection is a spherical lune of opening $\pi -\theta$, hence has probability $(\pi -\theta )/(2\pi )$. The first two points also need $\theta <\pi /2$. Integrating against the central angle between independent uniform sphere points density gives $(4\pi {)}^{-1}{\int }_0^{\pi /2}(\pi -\theta )\sin \theta d\theta =(\pi -1)/(4\pi )$.

Join three independent uniform points on a sphere when their central angle is acute. Given angle $\gamma$ between the first pair, the third point's two favorable hemispheres overlap in a spherical lune of area fraction $(\pi -\gamma )/(2\pi )$. If $\gamma <\pi /2$, connection requires membership in their union, of probability $1/2+\gamma /(2\pi )$. If $\gamma >\pi /2$, it requires membership in their intersection, of probability $1/2-\gamma /(2\pi )$. Integrating these against the central-angle density $\sin \gamma /2$ proves the displayed probability. Connectivity is weaker than all three pairwise angles being acute.

The cellular boundary ${\mathbb{Z}}^2\to \mathbb{Z}$ is $(m,n)$, with kernel $\mathbb{Z}$ and zero cokernel when the degrees are coprime. The van Kampen theorem gives trivial fundamental group. The Hurewicz theorem supplies a map from the sphere representing a homology generator, and the homological Whitehead theorem makes it a homotopy equivalence. For degrees $2,3$ the space cannot be homeomorphic to a sphere: an embedded circle in a sphere bounds its two complementary regions, so both characteristic boundary maps would have degree of absolute value one.

If an $n$-dimensional CW complex is extended by exactly one cell in dimension $n+1$, then its cellular cochain group in that degree is the coefficient field $k$. Regardless of how many higher cells are attached, the cohomology is a quotient of a subspace of that one-dimensional group. This gives the displayed bound. Finiteness of the higher cell sets is unnecessary for this particular conclusion.

For analytic holomorphic sections, the two-chart Čech cohomology uses convergent Laurent series, rather than only Laurent polynomials. A frame on the infinity chart equals $z^n$ times a finite-chart frame. Entire finite-chart functions remove Laurent powers $k\ge 0$, and infinity-chart functions remove powers $k\le n$. The positive and negative tails converge to entire chart functions, so only the finite gap $n<k<0$ remains. Thus the first cohomology has basis $z^{n+1},\dots ,z^{-1}$ when $n\le -2$ and is zero when $n\ge -1$. The same transition relation gives global sections of dimension $\max (n+1,0)$.

The Čech differential sends a cochain on $(p+1)$-fold intersections to the alternating sum of its restrictions to $(p+2)$-fold intersections. Each pair of omitted indices occurs twice with opposite signs in the composite, so ${\delta }^2=0$. It defines the Čech cohomology of the cover.

For real $C$, this analytic homogeneous field has real boundary values on both faces of the negative-axis crack, so it adds no face shear traction. Ahead of the tip it adds stress $-\mu C/\sqrt{x}$. Its stress tends to zero at infinity, but its primitive grows like $\sqrt{z}$, producing unbounded remote displacement and infinite total elastic energy. Thus merely requiring vanishing far stress does not uniquely fix the face-loaded crack solution. Excluding an added remote stress-intensity field, for example through the localized-load bounded-displacement far condition, removes this homogeneous ambiguity. Ordinary inverse-square-root tip stress remains allowed and has finite energy in any bounded neighbourhood of the tip.