At fixed stellar mass $M_{\star }$, planetary mass density ${\rho }_p$, age $t_{\star }$ and initial ratio $\kappa =a_0/a_p$, the order-unity Safronov number comparison and comet energy diffusion give boundariesTheir logarithmic slopes in planetary mass versus radius are $-3/2$ and $3/4$. Above both, strong kicks and a short estimated diffusion time favour ejection; below the escape boundary, repeated weak encounters favour collision statistically. Below the age boundary, the stated diffusion mechanism has not completed on its characteristic clock. Collision lifetimes require additional cross-section and encounter-rate information, so this map alone cannot establish retention or accretion within the age.

Linearize the Collisionless Boltzmann equation and the perturbation Poisson equation about a homogeneous velocity distribution $f_0$. A plane wave gives $f_1={\varphi }_1\mathbf{k}\cdot {\nabla }_v{f}_0/(\mathbf{k}\cdot \mathbf{v}-\omega )$. Integrating this density and using $-k^2{\varphi }_1=4\pi G\int f_1{d}^{3}v$ yields $1+(4\pi G/k^2)\int [\mathbf{k}\cdot {\nabla }_v{f}_0/(\mathbf{k}\cdot \mathbf{v}-\omega )]d^{3}v=0$. Growing modes have $\mathrm{Im}\omega >0$ and no real-velocity pole; real and damped frequencies require the causal continuation prescription. The Newtonian homogeneous background requires the Jeans swindle.

In physical polar velocity components, a planar rotating system has accelerations ${\dot{v}}_R=2{\Omega }_b{v}_{\varphi }+v_{\varphi }^2/R+{\psi }_{\mathrm{eff},R}$ and ${\dot{v}}_{\varphi }=-2{\Omega }_b{v}_R-v_R{v}_{\varphi }/R+{\psi }_{\mathrm{eff},\varphi }/R$. The Collisionless Boltzmann equation is constant distribution along these characteristics. Its physical phase-space measure includes the spatial Jacobian $R$.

In a pointed category, a pushout in a category of $f$ and $f^{\prime }$ induces an isomorphism between their categorical cokernels, when those cokernels exist. Push out the cokernel map of $f$ together with the zero map, then factor through the cokernel of $f^{\prime }$. Cokernel and pushout uniqueness prove that this map is inverse to the induced comparison. No abelian hypothesis is needed.

The property that every degree-one element has square zero is invariant under a graded ring isomorphism. Over ${\mathbb{F}}_2$ it distinguishes the cohomology ring of a torus from the mod-two cohomology ring of an inversion mapping torus of dimension at least two.

Objects are coherent formulas in context and arrows are provably total, single-valued relations, modulo provable equivalence. Composition existentially eliminates the intermediate tuple. Conjunction constructs finite limits, existential formulas construct images and disjunction constructs finite unions. It is a coherent category.

For a unit-amplitude random phase screen $e^{i\beta W}$ with standard normal marginal distribution, the characteristic function gives coherent amplitude $m=\mathbb{E}[e^{i\beta W}]=e^{-{\beta }^2/2}$. The coherent power is $|m{|}^2=e^{-{\beta }^2}$, although the total power remains one. In homogeneous paraxial space the mean constant transverse field propagates without additional attenuation. Under decorrelation at large separation, the remaining power $1-e^{-{\beta }^2}$ is diffuse.

For a small cogenerating family $(Q_i)$ in a locally small category, the evaluation arrow $C\to {\prod }_{i,q\in \mathcal{C}(C,Q_i)}{Q}_i$ is a monomorphism whenever that small product in a category exists. Equality after all its projections is equality after every map to a cogenerator, hence equality of the original parallel morphisms.

For parallel arrows $f,g:B\rightrightarrows C$, a split coequalizer consists of $q:C\to Q$ and arrows $s:Q\to C$, $t:C\to B$ with $qf=qg$, $qs=1_Q$, $ft=1_C$, and $gt=sq$. These equations prove the coequalizer property: if $uf=ug$, then $u=uft=ugt=usq$, so $us$ is the unique factor through $q$. Every functor preserves this split coequalizer because it preserves these equations.

To walk from $\beta$ to $\alpha <\beta$, start at $\beta$ and repeatedly move from $\delta$ to $\min (C_{\delta }\setminus \alpha )$ until reaching $\alpha$. The strict decrease in ordinals makes the walk finite. Its trace records the successive $C_{\delta }\cap \alpha$.

The club filter on a regular uncountable cardinal number $\kappa$ is $\kappa$-complete. Intersections of fewer than $\kappa$ club sets are closed. For unboundedness, repeatedly step past a point of each club and take a countable supremum; regularity keeps all suprema below $\kappa$, and closure puts the final supremum in every club.

For any regular uncountable cardinal number $\kappa$, the set $\kappa \setminus \{\omega \}$ contains the final-segment club set $[\omega +1,\kappa )$, so belongs to the club filter and is a stationary set. It is not closed, since its finite ordinals have supremum $\omega$, which is missing.

A mono is j-closed if it equals its closure under the local operator $j$. Its characteristic map factors through the closed-subobject classifier ${\Omega }_j$. A j-closed subobject of a j-sheaf is a j-sheaf; a mono that is both closed and j-dense is an isomorphism.

If $E$ is a nonzero closed linear subspace of a normed ambient space and $F$ is finite-dimensional with $E\cap F=\{0\}$, the unit sphere of $E$ has positive distance from $F$. Otherwise a sequence of nearly coincident points yields a bounded sequence in $F$, hence a convergent subsequence; closedness of $E$ puts its norm-one limit in both vector subspaces. In applications to a bidual space, completeness of the Banach space makes its canonical image closed.

The tree-level Polyakov path integral for closed-string tachyons reduces in conformal gauge to their vertex-position integral on the Riemann sphere. Three positions are fixed by the residual Möbius group; the other $N-3$ complex positions are integrated. The embedding-field Gaussian integral produces momentum conservation and the Koba-Nielsen factor.

A $\lambda$-closed forcing order preserves a ground-model cardinal number $\lambda$, even when it is singular. A proposed surjection from an ordinal below $\lambda$ to $\lambda$ would be an old function because closed forcing adds no short ordinal sequences, contradicting old cardinalhood. This concerns $\lambda$ and smaller cardinals; closure alone does not supply preservation of all larger cardinals.

In $[{\mathbb{T}}_{fp},\mathbf{Set}]$, the generic model assigns to each finitely presented algebra its underlying set at each sort, with the algebraic operations pointwise. It is covariant on algebra homomorphisms. Pullback along a geometric morphism yields its classified internal model.

Adding coherent or geometric axioms to a theory determines a coverage on a site for its classifying topos. The antecedent presentation is covered by presentations where its consequent disjuncts and witnesses hold. Sheafification imposes those axioms on the generic model. An inconsistent antecedent gets an empty cover.

On the opposite of finitely presented commutative rings, cover the zero ring by the empty family and cover $A$ by $A/(a),A/(b)$ whenever $ab=0$. The generated topology classifies nontrivial integral domains, with generic model the sheafified tautological ring. It is not subcanonical: at $\mathbb{Z}/4$, the covering quotient to $\mathbb{Z}/2$ identifies the distinct sections $0$ and $2$ of the polynomial-ring representable.

Give a discrete group $G$ a contractible free CW complex $EG$. The quotient $BG=EG/G$ has universal cover $EG$, so it has fundamental group $G$ and no higher homotopy groups. It is thus an Eilenberg–MacLane space $K(G,1)$, even when $G$ is nonabelian. The cohomology of $BG$ with the appropriate local coefficients computes group cohomology.