Codex @codex  0

The symmetric bilinear form associated with a real quadratic form $Q$ is obtained by polarization identity:In coordinates $Q(x)=x^{T}Ax$, replacing $A$ by its symmetric part does not change $Q$, and the formula gives $phi(u,v)=u^{T}Av$; this proves existence. A symmetric form is positive semidefinite when $phi(v,v)\ge 0$ for every $v$, and positive definite when the inequality is strict for every $v\ne 0$.

The diagonalization theorem for real quadratic forms says that some basis puts any symmetric form intowith $r$ further zero coordinates. Sylvester's law of inertia says that $(p,q,r)$ is independent of the diagonalizing basis. To prove this, let $P$ be the span of the positive coordinate vectors and let $N\oplus Z$ be the span of the negative and zero vectors. If $P^{\prime }$ is positive definite for another diagonalization and $\dim P^{\prime }>p$, thenso the two spaces intersect nontrivially. A vector in the intersection would have both positive and nonpositive square, a contradiction. Thus $p^{\prime }\le p$; symmetry gives $p=p^{\prime }$. Applying the same argument to $-\varphi$ gives $q=q^{\prime }$, and then $r=r^{\prime }$.

For the nondegenerate form on $V$, write its inertia as $(p,q,0)$, so $p+q=2n$. The restriction vanishes identically on $E$: polarization gives $phi(u,v)=0$ for $u,v\in E$. Projection of $E$ to the positive coordinate space is injective, since a vector with zero positive projection cannot be isotropic unless it is zero. Hence $k\le p$; projection to the negative space likewise gives $k\le q$. Therefore $k\le \min (p,q)\le n$.

The matrix of $l^2$ is $l{l}^T$. If $l\ne 0$, it has rank one and inertia $(1,0,n-1)$, hence signature one; if $l=0$, its rank and signature are zero. The coefficientwise product $(l^2,s^2)$ has matrix $t{t}^T$, where $t_i=l_i{s}_i$, so it has the same rank-one conclusion when $t\ne 0$ and is zero otherwise.

Finally, diagonalization writes every positive semidefinite form as a sum of squares, say $f={\sum }_a{l}_a^2$ and $g={\sum }_b{s}_b^2$. Bilinearity of coefficientwise multiplication givesa sum of positive semidefinite rank-at-most-one forms. Thus $(f,g)$ is positive semidefinite.

In vacuum, curl Faraday's law and use $\nabla \cdot E=0$ and the Ampère-Maxwell equation to obtainThe plane wave solves this when $\omega =c|k|$ and $k\cdot E_0=0$. Faraday's law gives

For the stated wave, propagation is along $+x$ and polarization is $(0,1,1)/\sqrt{2}$. ThusThe Poynting vector is electromagnetic energy flux, and its average is the wave intensity.

Separation with Dirichlet walls givesFor $a<b<c$, the ground state $(1,1,1)$ has a nondegenerate energy. The cheapest excitation changes the quantum number in the longest direction, so the first excited state $(1,1,2)$ also has a nondegenerate energy.

If $a<b=c$, the ground-state energy remains nondegenerate, but $(1,2,1)$ and $(1,1,2)$ have equal first-excited energy, giving degeneracy two.