Cross-ratio

For four distinct points of the Riemann sphere, their cross-ratio iswith the evident limiting conventions at infinity. Every Möbius transformation preserves it.

For the convention in cross-ratio normalization of four projective points, permuting four distinct projective points produces the six displayed rational expressions. Interchanging the first pair sends $\lambda$ to $1/\lambda$; interchanging the middle pair sends it to $1-\lambda$. The four permutations consisting of the identity and the three double transpositions form a Klein four-group preserving the cross-ratio. The resulting six-element action gives every displayed expression.

For real $\lambda \notin \{0,1\}$, repeated values occur exactly for $\lambda \in \{-1,1/2,2\}$, and then the orbit has size three. To prove this, a repetition gives a nonidentity stabilizer after composing one operation with the other's inverse. Its fixed-point equations give $-1$, $1/2$, $2$, or ${\lambda }^2-\lambda +1=0$, with the last case nonreal. With one point at infinity, $\lambda =(x_1-x_3)/(x_1-x_2)$; the three real exceptional values mean that one finite point is the midpoint of the other two. Thus these harmonic conjugate points configurations have three collinear equally spaced finite points in that affine coordinate.

For four distinct projective points on the complex projective line, use the conventionwhere $[p_i,p_j]$ is the determinant of chosen representative vectors. Rescaling any representative cancels, and applying an invertible matrix multiplies every bracket by its determinant, which also cancels. Thus the expression is a projective invariant. The projective general linear group action on the projective line has a unique element $T$ taking the first three points to $\infty ,0,1$. In those coordinates the displayed expression is exactly $T(P_3)$. Consequently the cross-ratio completely determines the orbit of the ordered quadruple under the projective linear group. Its value lies in $\mathbb{C}\setminus \{0,1\}$.

An injective self-map of the complex projective line preserving all cross-ratios is a projective transformation; neither continuity nor prior surjectivity is needed. Choose the unique projectivity agreeing with the map on three distinct projective points and compose with its inverse. The resulting map fixes those three points. Normalize them to $\infty ,0,1$. Preservation of the cross-ratio $(\infty 0:1z)=z$ now fixes every other point as well, proving that the normalized map is the identity map. Undoing the composition proves the assertion.

Distinct projective points $C,D$ on the projective line are harmonic conjugates relative to distinct $A,B$ when $(AB:CD)=-1$. Use the cross-ratio convention $(AB:CD)=[a,c][b,d]/([a,d][b,c])$, where the brackets are two-by-two determinants. In an affine coordinate with $A=0$, $B=\infty$, the condition is $D=-C$. A complete quadrangle constructs the fourth point using joins and intersections only. Characteristic two is excluded because then $-1=1$, and the four points could not be distinct.

Normalize three distinct points on a generalized circle by a Möbius transformation $f$ taking them to $1,0,\infty$. The inverse image of the extended real line is their generalized circle, and $J=f^{-1}\circ c\circ f$, with $c(z)=\overline{z}$, fixes that circle pointwise and squares to the identity. Changing the three normalizing points replaces $f$ by $M\circ f$ with a real-coefficient Möbius map $M$. Since $M$ commutes with conjugation, $J$ is unchanged. Thus this construction depends only on the circle. It is inversion in a circle for an ordinary circle and Euclidean reflection for a straight line, each extended to the Riemann sphere.

For four vertices in cyclic order on a circle, the product of the diagonal lengths is the sum of the products of opposite side lengths. One proof uses the cross-ratio with second point mapped to zero: its negative sign gives $|r|+1=|1-r|$, which becomes the displayed length relation.

Every Möbius transformation preserves the cross-ratio. The identity $M(u)-M(v)=(ad-bc)(u-v)/[(cu+d)(cv+d)]$ makes all extra factors cancel in the ratio; limiting conventions handle points at infinity.

This cross-ratio convention is the value of $z_3$ under the Möbius transformation sending $z_1,z_2,z_4$ to $1,0,\infty$. It is one minus the convention $(z_1-z_3)(z_2-z_4)/[(z_1-z_2)(z_3-z_4)]$. Exchanging the first two points replaces $r$ by $1-r$. For four points in cyclic order on a circle, this convention gives $r<0$ and $1-r>1$.

Normalize three distinct points of the Riemann sphere by a Möbius transformation $f$ sending them to $\infty ,0,1$. A fourth point lies on their generalized circle exactly when $f$ takes a real value there: the image of that generalized circle is the extended real line. Other standard cross-ratio ordering conventions differ by real fractional-linear transformations and preserve this reality criterion.