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A researcher who coauthored a randomized pilot study combining a pharmacological intervention with virtual-reality exposure for phobic participants. The design tested augmentation of fear extinction rather than treating an acute drug response as identical to durable learning.^[ref]

Researcher whose contributions include the work cited below.^[ref]

A compound with NMDA-receptor antagonist actions among other effects, used in some experiments to perturb learning and perception. A transient pharmacological model does not reproduce an entire psychiatric disorder.

Development of the representations and processes used to understand and produce a language. Evidence about recognising a sound pattern, learning its meaning and generalising grammatical structure addresses different components of the problem.

A behavioural phenomenon in which prior exposure to uncontrollable aversive events impairs subsequent escape or coping. The original explanation invoked learning that action and outcome are independent; later accounts emphasize learning control over stress responses. The phenomenon is an animal model relevant to some symptoms, not a complete diagnosis of human depression.

The hypothesis that matching instructional format to a learner's assessed style improves learning relative to mismatching. It requires an appropriate preference-by-format comparison, not merely a preference questionnaire or a format main effect.

Proposed categories of learners associated with preferred or supposedly optimal ways of learning. Preferences should be distinguished from the stronger learning-style matching hypothesis that teaching to the preference improves learning.

A proposed specialised system for aspects of language. Domain-general sequence learning can contribute to language acquisition while leaving open whether particular representations or other processing stages are specialised.

The position that some language-relevant structure or learning constraints are present prior to the relevant linguistic experience. It is not equivalent to denying all learning; the specificity and content of the proposed initial endowment require evidence.

Retention beyond immediate temporary maintenance, including declarative and procedural forms. A person can have severe new declarative learning difficulty while retaining other enduring learning.

A persistent increase in synaptic efficacy induced by an appropriate pattern of activity. Its presence is a possible storage mechanism; a memory model must still explain which inputs are modified, the learning conditions and how subsequent activity retrieves the stored information.

Mark E. Bouton studied extinction learning and its dependence on context. Changing the testing environment after extinction investigates whether a response was erased or whether its expression is controlled by new learning tied to context. The distinction is useful for understanding recovery of a conditioned response without assuming that the original association has been recreated from nothing. ^[ref]

Masayuki Matsumoto studies neural signals associated with reward, learning and decision making. His 2007 study with Okihide Hikosaka compared responses in the lateral habenula and dopaminergic neurons during a rewarded saccade task. Reward-predicting and no-reward-predicting targets produced opposing response patterns in the two populations.^[ref]

A conceptual example explains the reversal control. Initially, suppose a left target predicts reward and a right target predicts no reward. Swap those outcomes while leaving the screen positions unchanged. A response that follows the newly unrewarded side cannot be explained solely by a permanent preference for rightward stimuli. The study observed response reversals when rewarded and unrewarded positions changed.^[ref]

This design separates spatial stimulation from the outcome associated with it. It also illustrates why a neural signal related to an adverse outcome should be described through the task and measured response, rather than treated as a complete measure of an animal's emotion.

Mathematics achievement is attained performance on specified mathematical learning objectives. Its meaning depends on the content and scoring of the assessment: proficiency in counting, arithmetic and geometry need not form an identical profile. A total score can summarize performance while concealing which skills changed.

An informative intervention therefore measures more than success on its practiced activity. In Geetha B. Ramani's study with Robert S. Siegler, children played either a linear numbered board game or a corresponding color board game. Assessment included counting, numeral identification, numerical magnitude comparison and number-line estimation, rather than only skill at winning the game.^[ref]

Improvement on an assessment is evidence about that outcome in the studied population. Claims about broader mathematical understanding require appropriate generalization tests and a comparison design that separates the intervention from maturation, repeated testing and other experiences.

Original translational review and clinical illustrations explain expectancy violation, learning and retrieval across contexts; not presented as a new randomized experiment.

An account in which the medial temporal lobe rapidly establishes and initially binds long-term declarative memory, with a changing dependence on the region during systems consolidation. The original strong restriction of the region to long-term memory must be distinguished from the broader claim that it is important for declarative learning.^[ref]

Access to retained information in response to internal or external cues. Cue reinstatement can alter test performance without changing the original episode, but controls are needed to distinguish retrieval from new learning.

A researcher who tested observational conditioning of fear in rhesus monkeys. Edited videos paired a demonstrator’s fear behavior with different objects, allowing acquired avoidance of fear-relevant and fear-irrelevant objects to be compared. The 1989 author record anchors this identity; the experiment tests selective social learning rather than mere exposure to an object.^[ref]

A clinical psychologist who developed learning-based explanations and strategies for exposure therapy.^[ref]

Dense repeated observation around a period of learning or change. Trial-level behavior can reveal transitions missed by widely separated tests, although the measurements themselves may influence learning.

Theoretical accounts in which some processing systems have specialised functions or restricted informational access. Claims about input selectivity, representations, learning algorithms, developmental origins and mature processing architecture should be distinguished: evidence against one does not automatically settle the others.