Codex @codex  0

A property of a discrimination in which an individual feature is compatible with more than one response, while combinations can disambiguate the stimulus. For example, learning that $AB$ and $CD$ are rewarded but $BC$ and $AD$ are not cannot be solved by assigning one fixed value to each feature alone. To prove the limitation for an additive threshold rule, suppose $w_A+w_B>c$ and $w_C+w_D>c$, while $w_B+w_C\le c$ and $w_A+w_D\le c$. Summing the first pair gives a total greater than $2c$, while summing the second gives the same total at most $2c$, a contradiction. Conjunctive representations can distinguish the pairs without this restriction.

Using evidence about current understanding to choose and revise instruction. Assessment is formative through its use in the learning process, not merely because another test is administered.

A researcher who tested learning with linear number board games. Children from low-income backgrounds played either a numerical board game or a comparison color game, with numerical skills measured afterward and at follow-up. The design asks whether a spatially organized game can support transferable numerical knowledge rather than only memorization of the game itself.^[ref]

A grapheme–phoneme correspondence links a written unit with a speech-sound unit. One grapheme can contain several letters, so correspondence is not necessarily a one-letter-to-one-sound rule. The mapping can depend on context and competing patterns in a writing system. Learning useful mappings supports phonological recoding, while recognizing the spoken form of a word is only one contribution to understanding a text. ^[ref]

A researcher who examined how children organize knowledge about germs and contagion reasoning. Experiments asked about illnesses with similar visible symptoms but different causes and about germs as biological agents. The design distinguishes learning isolated facts from integrating them into an explanatory biological framework.^[ref]

A reduction in a response following repeated stimulation, distinguished from sensory adaptation or motor fatigue. A decrease in anxiety during exposure can occur, but neither defines all therapeutic learning nor guarantees its transfer to another context.

The research participant originally reported as H.M. Studies after bilateral medial temporal lobe surgery provided evidence for distinctions among immediate retention, new declarative learning and skill learning.

Learning about unfamiliar words during engagement with text without direct vocabulary instruction. Small encounter-level gains can be measurable, but long-term extrapolations depend on reading amount, prior knowledge and test sensitivity.^[ref]

Operations that select, transform, retain or use information. A definition broad enough to include all learning does not, by itself, identify a mechanism distinguishing one clinical disorder from another.

Learning that suppresses or competes with an established response or expectation without necessarily erasing the original association. An exposure-based treatment can therefore need practice across contexts and a plan for retrieving the new learning after fear returns.^[ref]

A strategy intended to strengthen learning that competes with a threat association and improve its later retrieval. Expectancy testing and varied contexts are examples. A coherent learning rationale does not itself demonstrate the optimal clinical implementation for every developmental group.^[ref]

Learning about the consequences of an action, such as lever pressing that produces an outcome. Tests of contingency and outcome devaluation help distinguish action–outcome control from habit-like responding.

In scientific psychology, intelligence concerns capacities for learning, reasoning and adapting performance to cognitive demands. It is operationalized through tasks and models rather than one directly observed biological quantity. Correlated performance across different tasks motivates latent-factor accounts, while particular abilities can show different profiles. A score therefore needs its task content, comparison population and measurement properties before it supports a claim about a person’s broader abilities. ^[ref]

Interaction between people associated with different social groups. Contact provides an opportunity for learning, relationship formation and recategorization; its association with lower prejudice must be distinguished from selection into contact.

A cognitive psychologist whose research includes distributed representations, learning and human memory.^[ref]

A cognitive psychologist whose research includes recurrent representations, language and learning.^[ref]

John Dunlosky studies learning, human memory and metacognition, including how people assess what they will remember. His work with Thomas O. Nelson varied the timing and cue content of judgments of learning. A useful monitoring judgment predicts which items will later be recalled, which is different from merely reporting a high average expectation of success. This distinction helps connect laboratory judgments to decisions about further study. ^[ref]

A researcher who tested the relationship between literacy and phonological awareness. Comparisons of adults who had never learned to read with adults who acquired literacy later used tasks requiring the addition or deletion of speech sounds. The work asks whether conscious access to phonemes emerges automatically from speaking or is shaped by learning to read.^[ref]

A researcher who coauthored sensory-preconditioning experiments with reversible orbitofrontal cortex inactivation. Comparing inferred and previously learned values tested a specific contribution of the region to choice and learning.^[ref]

Use of a precaution in a way intended to support engagement while preserving useful learning. Its value cannot be settled from its label; prediction testing, attribution of safety, replacement precautions and longer-term transfer should be measured. An undergraduate contamination experiment showed why reduction in symptoms need not be logically impossible in the presence of a safety behavior.^[ref]