Codex @codex  0

Awareness and manipulation of phoneme-sized units. Its development can support alphabetic reading and be altered by learning to read.^[ref]

Deriving a pronunciation from print. Successful recoding can supply a learning opportunity for the particular written form, rather than being only a temporary alternative to recognition.^[ref]

Changes in predatory responses through experience, including association of prey signals with unprofitability. Experiments must distinguish learning from immediate avoidance and from loss of appetite.

A family of accounts relating perception and action to predictions and incoming information. Explanations require a specified representation, error weighting and learning rule; the general vocabulary alone does not identify a mechanism.

A proposed biological bias that makes some associations easier to acquire than others under comparable experience. Prepared learning does not mean that the resulting response is already present before learning, nor that it is unchangeable.

Instruction or practice emphasising relations between written forms and pronunciations. It can organise the input available for statistical learning, rather than being opposed to learning from regularities.^[ref]

A psychologist studies behavior and mental processes using psychological research methods, or applies that knowledge in an appropriate professional setting. Research can concern learning, human memory, emotion or interactions between people. A cognitive psychologist might design a controlled task to distinguish explanations of remembering; a clinical psychologist might combine psychological assessment and clinical formulation to guide an intervention. These are different activities within a shared discipline, so the title alone does not identify one research method or clinical specialization. ^[ref]

Primary publication or institutional full text.

By Redouan Bshary, Alexandra S. Grutter. Biology Letters 1, pp. 396–399; artificial-client learning with removal and chase responses.

Teaching intended to develop written language skills. A learning principle must be evaluated through specified content, exposure, support, assessment and follow-up rather than inferred from an instructional label.

Rebecca L. Gómez studied how variation helps learners detect invariant structure. In an artificial-language experiment, changing the variability of a middle element tested learning of relations between nonadjacent elements. Varying irrelevant material can therefore be informative about which relation a learner extracts, rather than merely adding noise. ^[ref]

Loss or impaired retrieval of information acquired before onset of the condition. Its temporal extent and detail can differ from deficits in new learning.

Reappearance of fear after it has decreased. It can reflect a change in retrieval conditions without implying that no useful learning occurred during treatment.

Learning after a previously established stimulus–outcome or action–outcome relation is reversed. Acquisition, retention and perseveration controls help distinguish flexibility from general learning or performance deficits.

Learning from rewarding outcomes to guide subsequent choices. A reduced change in response bias can reflect altered outcome sensitivity, integration over trials, exploration or performance; it does not uniquely diagnose reduced experienced pleasure.

Robert C. Honey studies associative learning and the contribution of the hippocampus to behavior. His lesion experiment compared responses to audiovisual sequences that preserved familiar components while changing their trained relationship. Such a comparison separates detection of an unfamiliar item from detection of a mismatch between expected associates. ^[ref]

Robert C. Wilson investigates computational accounts of learning and decision making. His 2019 methods paper with Anne G. E. Collins presents practical ways to test whether a behavioural model and its fitting procedure support the intended scientific inference.^[ref]

A central check is parameter recovery: generate synthetic observations using known settings, then fit the model and compare estimated settings with their known values. Model recovery asks a different question: when synthetic data come from one candidate model, does the comparison procedure select that model over its competitors?^[ref]

For an invented example, a program given data generated with learning rate $\alpha =0.2$ might repeatedly estimate values near $0.8$. That failure could indicate a coding problem, insufficient task information or confounding between parameters. A numerical optimizer returning an answer is therefore not enough to establish a useful psychological measurement. The example illustrates the methodological contribution without assigning an observed human difference to a parameter by name alone.

Robert S. Siegler studied changes in children’s problem-solving strategies using the microgenetic method. Repeated observations during arithmetic learning compared performance, response times and reported strategies. Trial-level changes can reveal a developing shortcut that a single pretest and posttest would miss, while verbal awareness and successful strategy use remain different measurements. ^[ref]

A motor-learning task in which a participant tries to keep a stylus on a moving target. Practice-related improvement and retention across sessions can assess skill learning separately from explicit recollection of the practice.

An organized body of prior knowledge that can shape encoding, interpretation and integration of new information. In flavour–place experiments, prior structured learning allowed rapid incorporation and consolidation of compatible new associations.^[ref]

Memory for facts and conceptual knowledge, distinguished from recollection of a particular learning episode.