Algerian mathematics refers to the contributions to mathematics made by Algerian mathematicians, as well as the mathematical education and developments in Algeria, particularly after its independence in 1962. This field of study encompasses various areas of mathematics, including pure mathematics, applied mathematics, statistics, and mathematical education. Algerian mathematicians have made significant contributions across various disciplines, including algebra, analysis, geometry, and number theory, among others.

Babylonian mathematics refers to the mathematical system developed and utilized by the ancient civilization of Babylon, primarily during the period from approximately 2000 BCE to 300 BCE. This system is notable for several key characteristics: 1. **Base-60 Number System**: Babylonian mathematics primarily employed a sexagesimal (base-60) numeral system, which means that it was based on the number 60 rather than the decimal (base-10) system used in most modern mathematics.

An abacus is a simple counting tool used for performing arithmetic calculations. It consists of a frame holding a series of rods or wires, each strung with beads or disks that can be moved. The design and configuration of the abacus can vary, but it typically allows users to represent numbers and perform basic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The abacus has ancient origins and has been used in various cultures, including the Chinese, Greeks, and Romans.

In mathematics, particularly in the area of group theory, the term "magic circle" may refer to a specific concept or structure used in the study of groups, particularly in the context of group actions and geometry. However, it's not a widely recognized term like "magic square." One common usage of the term might be in relation to **magic squares** where numbers are arranged in a square grid such that the sums of each row, column, and sometimes diagonals equal the same constant.

The 19th century was a pivotal period in the development of mathematics, characterized by significant advances in various fields. Here are some notable contributions and developments from that era: 1. **Foundations of Modern Mathematics**: The 19th century saw efforts to establish a more rigorous foundation for mathematics. Key figures included: - **Georg Cantor**, who developed set theory and introduced concepts like cardinality and ordinality.

In mathematics, "1970s" does not refer to a specific mathematical concept or term. However, it can refer to the decade itself and the developments and contributions in mathematics during that period. The 1970s were notable for several advancements in various fields of mathematics, including: 1. **Computer Science and Algorithms**: The development of algorithms and theories surrounding computational complexity, including the introduction of concepts like NP-completeness by Stephen Cook.

Analytic theology is a contemporary movement within Christian theology that applies the methods and tools of analytic philosophy to theological questions and concepts. It seeks to clarify and rigorously analyze theological ideas using precise language, logical reasoning, and systematic argumentation. This approach often emphasizes clarity, coherence, and the use of formal logic to evaluate theological claims.

Alvin Plantinga is an influential American philosopher known for his work in philosophy of religion, epistemology, and metaphysics. Born on July 15, 1932, he has been a prominent figure in contemporary philosophical discussions, particularly concerning the rationality of religious belief and the existence of God.

Andy Clark is a prominent philosopher and cognitive scientist known for his work in philosophy of mind, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence. He is particularly recognized for his contributions to the concepts of extended mind and predictive processing. Clark's extended mind hypothesis posits that the mind is not confined to the brain but extends into the body and the environment, suggesting that tools, technology, and social interactions can be integral parts of human cognition.

Arthur Pap is not a widely recognized or established term, concept, or figure in popular culture, science, or other fields as of my last knowledge update in October 2023. It's possible that it could refer to a specific individual, a fictional character, or a niche topic that has emerged more recently.

Hyperbaton is a rhetorical and literary device that involves the alteration of the normal word order in a sentence. This technique can create emphasis, enhance the rhythm of a passage, or draw attention to a particular part of the sentence. Hyperbaton is often used in poetry and prose to create stylistic effects or to evoke a certain tone or mood.

Berit Brogaard is a philosopher known for her work in areas such as philosophy of mind, epistemology, and cognitive science. She has made contributions to discussions on topics like perception, embodiment, and the nature of concepts. Brogaard has also explored issues related to the relationship between language and thought, as well as the implications of cognitive science for philosophical theories. Additionally, she has written about the philosophical implications of mental disorders and has been involved in research related to consciousness.

Brian Davies is a philosopher known for his work in the fields of philosophy of religion and medieval philosophy, especially concerning the thought of figures like Thomas Aquinas. He has written extensively on topics such as the existence of God, the nature of religious belief, and the intersection of faith and reason. His work often explores traditional arguments for and against the existence of God, as well as the implications of various philosophical viewpoints on religious thought.

C. E. M. Joad, whose full name is Cyril Edwin Mitchinson Joad, was a British philosopher, writer, and broadcaster, born on 16th November 1891 and passed away on 9th April 1973. He is best known for his work in the field of philosophy and for being one of the prominent figures in popularizing philosophical ideas through radio and television broadcasts in the mid-20th century.

Charles Stevenson (1908–1979) was an American philosopher best known for his work in the field of ethics and metaethics. He is particularly noted for his development of "emotivism," a theory of moral language that suggests that ethical statements do not primarily convey factual information but instead express emotional attitudes or reactions. Stevenson's influential book, "Ethics and Language" (1944), argues that moral judgments are expressions of preference or emotion rather than objective truths.