The International Federation of Surveyors, known by its French acronym FIG (Fédération Internationale des Géomètres), is a non-governmental organization that represents the interests of surveyors and the surveying profession globally. Founded in 1878, FIG aims to promote the international study, practice, and standards of surveying and to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and best practices among professionals in the field.

The UNSW School of Surveying and Geospatial Engineering is part of the University of New South Wales (UNSW) in Sydney, Australia. It focuses on education, research, and innovation in the fields of surveying, geospatial science, and engineering. The school offers undergraduate and postgraduate programs that cover a range of topics, including land surveying, geospatial data analysis, remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and engineering surveying.

A Digital Orthophoto Quadrangle (DOQ) is a digital aerial photograph that has been geometrically corrected (orthorectified) to ensure that the scale of the photograph is uniform across the image. This means that the image accurately represents the Earth's surface, allowing it to be used as a map where distances and areas can be measured accurately.

Subgroup distortion refers to a phenomenon in which the characteristics, behaviors, or identities of individuals within a subgroup of a larger population are misrepresented or misunderstood, often due to stereotypes or biases. This can occur in various contexts, including social groups, organizational settings, and research.

PAGEOS (Photographic Astronomical Geodetic Earth Observation Satellite) is a satellite that was designed for applications in geodesy, which involves measuring and understanding Earth's geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravity field. Launched in 1985, PAGEOS was equipped with a large photographic film plate to take images of the Earth, which were used for mapping and to support geodetic measurements.

Satellite geodesy is a branch of geodesy that utilizes satellite technology to measure and analyze the Earth's shape, gravitational field, and rotation, as well as to determine precise locations on the Earth's surface. This field combines techniques from various sciences, including physics, mathematics, and engineering, to improve our understanding of Earth's geometry and dynamics.

Paleomagnetism is the study of the Earth’s magnetic field as preserved in rocks, sediments, and archaeological materials. It involves the analysis of the magnetic properties of these materials to understand the history of the Earth's magnetic field, including its direction and intensity over geological time. When volcanic rocks form, or sediments are deposited, they can acquire a remnant magnetization that reflects the Earth's magnetic field at that moment in time.

Vertical datums are reference points or surfaces used to measure elevation or depth. They provide a basis for determining the vertical position of points on the Earth's surface and are crucial for a variety of applications, including topographic mapping, construction, navigation, and geophysical studies. There are two main types of vertical datums: 1. **Mean Sea Level (MSL)**: This is the most common vertical datum and represents the average level of the ocean surface over a long period of time.

Navigation satellites are a type of satellite specifically designed to provide positioning, navigation, and timing information to users on the ground, at sea, or in the air. These satellites form part of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that enable precise location determination and navigation support for various applications. Key features of navigation satellites include: 1. **Positioning**: They use signals transmitted from the satellites to determine the precise location of a receiver anywhere on Earth.

The United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories was an early scientific organization established in the mid-19th century, primarily tasked with surveying the western territories of the United States. It was established in 1867, and its primary objective was to explore and map the western regions of the country, particularly areas that had recently come under U.S. control due to the westward expansion and the conclusion of the Civil War.

The United States National Grid (USNG) is a spatial reference system based on the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) map projection, designed to provide a standardized way to identify locations across the United States. It was developed to improve interoperability and communication among various governmental and non-governmental organizations, especially for emergency management and response. Key features of the USNG include: 1. **Grid System**: It divides the U.S.

The Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) coordinate system is a specific type of map projection that is used primarily for polar regions, both the North and South Poles. This coordinate system is particularly useful for mapping areas around the poles because it provides a way to represent the spherical surface of the Earth on a flat plane without significant distortion at the poles.

Geophysical global cooling refers to a significant and sustained decrease in the Earth's average surface temperature on a global scale. This phenomenon can occur due to various natural and anthropogenic (human-caused) factors. Historically, the Earth has experienced periods of global cooling, often associated with significant climatic events, including ice ages, volcanic eruptions, and changes in solar radiation.

The geothermal gradient refers to the rate at which temperature increases with depth below the Earth's surface. Typically, the temperature rises approximately 25 to 30 degrees Celsius for every kilometer of depth in the Earth's crust, although this rate can vary widely depending on geological conditions.

Thermal subsidence refers to the process by which the Earth's surface sinks or lowers due to cooling and contraction of the underlying materials, commonly occurring in tectonic settings. This geological phenomenon can occur in various contexts, such as: 1. **Ocean Basins**: When new oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, it is initially hot and occupies a larger volume than when it cools and solidifies.

C-squares could refer to several concepts, depending on the context. However, the most recognized use of "C-squares" pertains to programming and data visualization in the context of the C-squares algorithm, which is a method used in geographical information systems (GIS) for creating and analyzing data represented in a grid or square format.

Mapcode is a location referencing system that provides precise coordinates to represent a specific geographic location. It is designed to offer a more user-friendly way to convey location information compared to traditional latitude and longitude coordinates. Mapcode codes are typically alphanumeric strings that can be easily communicated and used across various platforms and applications. The system is particularly useful in situations where standard addresses might not be available or where GPS coordinates would be cumbersome to share.

The Flip Graph is a concept in combinatorial mathematics, specifically in the study of permutations and the arrangement of objects. It is a type of graph that represents the possible transformations (or "flips") of a given object, where nodes represent objects (or permutations) and edges represent allowable flips between them.

The Gauss–Matuyama reversal refers to a significant geomagnetic reversal that occurred approximately 2.58 million years ago, marking the transition from the Gauss Chron (the recent geomagnetic polarity interval) to the Matuyama Chron (the next geomagnetic polarity interval). This reversal is one of the key events in Earth's magnetic history and is used as a reference point in the geological time scale.

A proton magnetometer is a type of magnetic sensor that measures the Earth's magnetic field by detecting the precession frequency of protons in a sample, typically in a fluid like water or a hydrocarbon. This instrument operates based on the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). ### Key Features: 1. **Operating Principle**: Proton magnetometers utilize the magnetic properties of protons found in hydrogen atoms. When placed in a magnetic field, these protons align with the field.