The Earth's outer core is liquid. P waves slow strongly across the mantle-to-outer-core transition, while ordinary shear waves do not propagate through the liquid. This produces major changes in seismic ray paths and shadow ranges.

The Arabidopsis kinase also called SnRK2.6, important for ABA-dependent control of guard cell transport. Its activity is restrained by selected protein phosphatase 2C enzymes.

A small GTPase participating in protrusion and polarity in migrating cells.

Size-exclusion chromatography with multi-angle light scattering combines separation by hydrodynamic behaviour with light-scattering and concentration measurements. With appropriate optical parameters it estimates molar mass across a peak, helping distinguish assembly from shape-dependent elution.

For a simple single-tether geometry, imposed displacement $Z$ divides into cantilever deflection $d$ and molecular extension $x$. Applying the displayed correction prevents attributing the instrument's stretch to the molecule. Geometric offsets, handles and substrate compliance require additional calibrated terms.

A measurement protocol that holds applied force approximately constant while allowing displacement to vary. Feedback can adjust an actuator in response to a calibrated load signal; alternatively, a passive field gradient can be sufficiently uniform over the displacement range. Finite feedback bandwidth, drift and spatial force variation limit the approximation. This differs from fixing actuator position or prescribing a force ramp.

An inferred ordering of biological cells by a model of state progression. It is not by itself a measured time, a lineage trace or proof of causal developmental transitions.

An inferred ordering of molecular states along a developmental trajectory. It does not itself establish which cell divided to produce another cell.

For support displacement $\mathbf{a}(t)$ and angle measured from the downward vertical, the mass position is $(a_x+l\sin \theta ,a_y-l\cos \theta )$. Its Euler-Lagrange equation is $l\ddot{\theta }+{\ddot{a}}_x\cos \theta +(g+{\ddot{a}}_y)\sin \theta =0$. In the support frame the effective acceleration is $\mathbf{g}-\ddot{\mathbf{a}}$; taking its torque about the hinge gives $l^2\ddot{\theta }\hat{\mathbf{z}}=\mathbf{l}\times (\mathbf{g}-\ddot{\mathbf{a}})$. The prescribed support can do work, so pendulum energy need not be conserved.

A silver wire composed of five twinned fcc domains around its axis, commonly with a pentagonal cross section. Sidewall passivation and atom addition at ends can favour one-dimensional growth from a multiply twinned seed. Cross-sectional microscopy and diffraction are stronger evidence for this structure than the outer wire outline alone.^[ref]