Proto-cuneiform numerals refer to an early system of writing that was used in ancient Mesopotamia, primarily by the Sumerians around the end of the 4th millennium BCE. Proto-cuneiform is one of the earliest known forms of writing and is characterized by its use of pictographs and ideograms.

Primality tests are algorithms or methods used to determine whether a given number is a prime number. A prime number is defined as a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. Primality testing is important in various fields, particularly in number theory and cryptography. There are several types of primality tests, which can be broadly categorized into deterministic and probabilistic tests.

The Price Medal is an award presented by the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) in the United Kingdom. It is given for outstanding contributions to the field of mathematics, particularly in the area of applied mathematics. The award is named after the mathematician and educator, Dr. Geoffrey Price, who made significant contributions to the application of mathematics in various fields. The Price Medal is typically awarded to individuals who have demonstrated excellence in research, teaching, or the application of mathematics.

A proton-exchange membrane (PEM), also known as a polymer electrolyte membrane, is a type of membrane that conducts protons (hydrogen ions) while acting as an insulator for gases such as hydrogen and oxygen. PEMs are primarily used in fuel cells and electrolyzers, where they facilitate the electrochemical reactions by allowing protons to pass through while blocking electrons and gases.

A fuzzy extractor is a cryptographic primitive that enables the generation of reproducible cryptographic keys from noisy or imperfect data. The concept was introduced to address the challenge of securely deriving keys from biometric data, which can be noisy due to variations in the way biometrics are captured (like fingerprints, iris scans, etc.) or their inherent variability (like the changes in a person's face over time).

As of my last knowledge update in October 2021, there isn't a widely recognized public figure or concept specifically named Alexander Razgulin. It's possible that he could be a private individual, a lesser-known figure, or someone who has gained prominence after that date.

Carme is one of the many moons of Jupiter. It was discovered in 1903 by the astronomer Henrietta Leavitt and has been classified as a member of the Carme group of irregular satellites, which are characterized by their distant orbits and retrograde motion (they orbit in the opposite direction to Jupiter's rotation). Carme is relatively large among Jupiter's moons, measuring about 46 kilometers (29 miles) in diameter.

A provocation test is a diagnostic procedure used to assess an individual's sensitivity or reaction to specific substances or stimuli. This type of test is commonly used in various medical fields, including allergy testing, asthma assessment, and evaluation of other hypersensitivity conditions. In the context of allergy testing, a provocation test might involve exposing a patient to a suspected allergen to observe whether they exhibit an allergic reaction, such as respiratory symptoms or skin reactions.

In finance, "margin" refers to the amount of equity that an investor must hold in their account when borrowing funds from a broker to purchase securities, or it can refer to the difference between the cost of goods sold and the sales revenue.

The WORMS Award, which stands for "Women Organized to Respond to Mass Shootings," is an initiative aimed at recognizing and honoring the contributions and efforts of women who have played significant roles in advocating for gun safety and addressing the impact of gun violence. The award seeks to elevate the voices and actions of women who work tirelessly to create safer communities and promote policy changes regarding gun control.

Ingo Althöfer is a German mathematician known for his work in various areas of mathematics, particularly in functional analysis and operator theory. He has also contributed to the field of applied mathematics and computational methods. Althöfer is recognized for his research and publications, and he may be involved in academia, teaching, or mathematical outreach.

As of my last knowledge update in October 2021, there is no widely recognized person or entity named Alexander Volberg. If this name has become relevant due to recent events or developments, I wouldn't have that information. It’s possible that Alexander Volberg could refer to a private individual, a fictional character, or a person who has gained prominence after my last update.

The Enigma machine was a cipher device used primarily by Germany during World War II to encrypt and decrypt secret messages. It was designed to secure communications for military operations and was known for its complexity and effectiveness in encoding messages. The key components of the Enigma machine included: 1. **Rotors**: The core of the encryption process, the machine typically had three to five rotors that would rotate with each key press.

The TRAP (Trapped Radio Active atoms in Penning traps) experiment is a scientific endeavor aimed at studying fundamental interactions and properties of atomic and subatomic particles, often involving the confinement of radioactive isotopes in electromagnetic fields. This technique allows researchers to examine the behavior of these particles with high precision.

Judith Liebman is a prominent figure in the field of mathematics, particularly known for her work in the areas of topology and combinatorics. She has made significant contributions to discrete mathematics and has been involved in various educational initiatives to promote mathematics.

Soft laser desorption is a technique used in mass spectrometry and analytical chemistry to ionize and analyze biomolecules, particularly large and fragile molecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and other complex compounds. This method involves the use of a laser beam to gently desorb ions from a sample surface without causing significant fragmentation of the molecules.

George Mason University (GMU) is known for a few notable incidents that can be characterized as hoaxes or pranks throughout its history. Here are a couple of examples: 1. **The "The Clown University" Hoax (1970s)**: In the mid-1970s, a satirical prank emerged where a group of students claimed that George Mason University would start offering a degree in "Clown Studies.

Walter Murray Wonham (1936-2019) was a prominent Canadian fishery scientist known for his extensive work on the ecology and population dynamics of fish species, particularly those in freshwater systems. He made significant contributions to the understanding of fish behavior, aquatic ecosystems, and the management of fish populations. Wonham's research had implications for the conservation of aquatic species and the sustainable management of fisheries.

The cation channel superfamily refers to a diverse group of ion channels that primarily conduct cations, which are positively charged ions such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca²+), and magnesium (Mg²+). These channels play critical roles in various physiological processes, including the regulation of cellular excitability, muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, and signal transduction.