Page directory given to process by the OS:
entry index entry address page table address present
----------- ---------------- ------------------ --------
0 CR3 + 0 * 4 0x10000 1
1 CR3 + 1 * 4 0
2 CR3 + 2 * 4 0x80000 1
3 CR3 + 3 * 4 0
...
2^10-1 CR3 + 2^10-1 * 4 0Page tables given to process by the OS at
PT1 = 0x10000000 (0x10000 * 4K):entry index entry address page address present
----------- ---------------- ------------ -------
0 PT1 + 0 * 4 0x00001 1
1 PT1 + 1 * 4 0
2 PT1 + 2 * 4 0x0000D 1
... ...
2^10-1 PT1 + 2^10-1 * 4 0x00005 1Page tables given to process by the OS at where
PT2 = 0x80000000 (0x80000 * 4K):entry index entry address page address present
----------- --------------- ------------ ------------
0 PT2 + 0 * 4 0x0000A 1
1 PT2 + 1 * 4 0x0000C 1
2 PT2 + 2 * 4 0
...
2^10-1 PT2 + 0x3FF * 4 0x00003 1PT1 and PT2: initial position of page table 1 and page table 2 for process 1 on RAM.With that setup, the following translations would happen:
linear 10 10 12 split physical
-------- -------------- ----------
00000001 000 000 001 00001001
00001001 000 001 001 page fault
003FF001 000 3FF 001 00005001
00400000 001 000 000 page fault
00800001 002 000 001 0000A001
00801004 002 001 004 0000C004
00802004 002 002 004 page fault
00B00001 003 000 000 page faultLet's translate the linear address
0x00801004 step by step:- In binary the linear address is:
0 0 8 0 1 0 0 4 0000 0000 1000 0000 0001 0000 0000 0100 - Grouping as
10 | 10 | 12gives:which gives:0000000010 0000000001 000000000100 0x2 0x1 0x4So the hardware looks for entry 2 of the page directory.page directory entry = 0x2 page table entry = 0x1 offset = 0x4 - The page directory table says that the page table is located at
0x80000 * 4K = 0x80000000. This is the first RAM access of the process.Since the page table entry is0x1, the hardware looks at entry 1 of the page table at0x80000000, which tells it that the physical page is located at address0x0000C * 4K = 0x0000C000. This is the second RAM access of the process. - Finally, the paging hardware adds the offset, and the final address is
0x0000C004.
Page faults occur if either a page directory entry or a page table entry is not present.
The Intel manual gives a picture of this translation process in the image "Linear-Address Translation to a 4-KByte Page using 32-Bit Paging": Figure 1. "x86 page translation process"
x86 page translation process
. Good film about him: Blaise Pascal (1972).
Good quote from his Les Provinciales (1656-57) Letter XII, p. 227:French version reproduced at: www.dicocitations.com/citation/auteurajout35106.php.
The war in which violence endeavours to crush truth is a strange and a long one.All the efforts of violence cannot weaken truth, but only serve to exalt it the more.The light of truth can do nothing to arrest violence; nay, it serves to provoke it still more.When force opposes force, the more powerful destroys the less; when words are opposed to words, those which are true and convincing destroy and scatter those which are vain and false; but violence and truth can do nothing against each other.Yet, let no one imagine that things are equal between them; for there is this final difference, that the course of violence is limited by the ordinance of God, who directs its workings to the glory of the truth, which it attacks; whereas truth subsists eternally, and triumphs finally over its enemies, because it is eternal, and powerful, like God Himself.
Was the first model to explain the Balmer series, notably linking atomic spectra to the Planck constant and therefore to other initial quantum mechanical observations.
This was one of the first major models that just said:
I give up, I can't tie this to classical physics in any way, let's just roll with it, OK?
It still treats electrons as little points spinning around the nucleus, but it makes the non-classical postulate that only certain angular momentums (and therefore energies) are allowed.
Bibliography:
- Inward Bound by Abraham Pais (1988) Chapter 9.e Atomic structure and spectral lines - Niels Bohr
- The Quantum Story by Jim Baggott (2011) Chapter 3 A Little Bit of Reality
In the context of cryptography, authentication means "ensuring that the message you got comes from who you think it did".
Authentication is how we prevent the man-in-the-middle attack.
Authentication is one of the hardest parts of cryptography, because the only truly secure way to do it is by driving to the other party yourself to establish a pre-shared key so you can do message authentication code. Or to share your public key with them if you are satisfied with the safety of post-quantum cryptography.
What if Process 1 tries to access
0x00003000, which is not present?The hardware notifies the software via a Page Fault Exception.
When an exception happens, the CPU jumps to an address that the OS had previously registered as the fault handler. This is usually done at boot time by the OS.
This could happen for example due to a programming error:but there are cases where it is not a bug, for example in Linux when:
int *is = malloc(1);
is[2] = 1;- the program wants to increase its stack.It just tries to accesses a certain byte in a given possible range, and if the OS is happy it adds that page to the process address space, otherwise, it sends a signal to the process.
- the page was swapped to disk.The OS will need to do some work behind the processes back to get the page back into RAM.The OS can discover that this is the case based on the contents of the rest of the page table entry, since if the present flag is clear, the other entries of the page table entry are completely left for the OS to to what it wants.On Linux for example, when present = 0:
- if all the fields of the page table entry are 0, invalid address.
- else, the page has been swapped to disk, and the actual values of those fields encode the position of the page on the disk.
In any case, the OS needs to know which address generated the Page Fault to be able to deal with the problem. This is why the nice IA32 developers set the value of
cr2 to that address whenever a Page Fault occurs. The exception handler can then just look into cr2 to get the address.
Neon isotope line split photograph by J. J. Thomson
. Source. J. J. Thomson took this picture in 1912:
There can, therefore, I think, be little doubt that what has been called neon is not a simple gas but a mixture of two gases, one of which has an atomic weight about 20 and the other about 22. The parabola due to the heavier gas is always much fainter than that due to the lighter, so that probably the heavier gas forms only a small percentage of the mixture.
How to decide if an ORM is decent? Just try to replicate every SQL query from nodejs/sequelize/raw/many_to_many.js on PostgreSQL and SQLite.
There is only a very finite number of possible reasonable queries on a two table many to many relationship with a join table. A decent ORM has to be able to do them all.
If it can do all those queries, then the ORM can actually do a good subset of SQL and is decent. If not, it can't, and this will make you suffer. E.g. Sequelize v5 is such an ORM that makes you suffer.
The next thing to check are transactions.
Basically, all of those come up if you try to implement a blog hello world world such as gothinkster/realworld correctly, i.e. without unnecessary inefficiencies due to your ORM on top of underlying SQL, and dealing with concurrency.
By Andy Haas, an experimental particle physics professor: as.nyu.edu/content/nyu-as/as/faculty/andy-haas.html What an awesome dude!
It is true that one image is worth a thousand words, but unfortunately it is also true that one image takes up at least as much bytes as a thousand words!
Having one single page to rule them all is of course the ideal setup for a website, as you can Ctrl + F one ToC and quickly find what you want.
And, with Linux Kernel Module Cheat Ciro noticed that it is very hard to write so much intelligent prose that becomes larger than reasonable to load on a single webpage.
He then started using this technique for everything he writes, including this page and Chinese government.
However, if there are too many images on the page, the loading of the last images would take forever in case users want to view the last sections.
There are two solutions to that:
- be traditional and create separate web pages
- be bold and load images as they appear on the viewport: stackoverflow.com/questions/2321907/how-do-you-make-images-load-only-when-they-are-in-the-viewport/57389607#57389607Edit: OK, it was standardized with
loading=lazy, without need JavaScript!Now the last awesome thing would be a method that loads first images in viewport, then those below, and then those above, that would be the ultimate solution.This question comes close: stackoverflow.com/questions/7906348/change-loading-order-of-images-already-on-page
Ciro is still deciding between those two. The traditional approach works for sure but loses the one page to rule them all benefits.
The innovative approach will work for interactive viewing, but archive.org will fail to load the images for example, and there may be other unforseen consequences.
Wikimedia Commons is awesome and automatically converts and serves smaller versions of images, so always choose the smallest images size needed by the output document. Readers can then find the higher resolution versions by following the page source.
This also comes to mind: motherfuckingwebsite.com
zettelkasten.de/posts/overview/ from zettelkasten:
How many Zettelkästen should I have? The answer is, most likely, only one for the duration of your life. But there are exceptions to this rule.
FFmpeg is the assembler of audio and video.
As a result, Ciro Santilli who likes "lower level stuff", has had many many hours if image manipulation fun with this software, see e.g.:
- the "Media" section of the best articles by Ciro Santillis.
- Figure "Ciro knows how to convert videos to GIFs"
As older Ciro grows, the more he notices that FFmpeg can do basically any lower level audio video task. It is just an amazing piece of software, the immediate go-to for any low level operation.
FFmpeg was created by Fabrice Bellard, which Ciro deeply respects.
Resize a video: superuser.com/questions/624563/how-to-resize-a-video-to-make-it-smaller-with-ffmpeg:Unlike every other convention under the sun, the height in
ffmpeg -i input.avi -filter:v scale=720:-1 -c:a copy output.mkvscale is the first number.Projects:
There are unlisted articles, also show them or only show them.