Scattering is a physical phenomenon that occurs when waves (such as light, sound, or other types of electromagnetic radiation) encounter an obstacle or inhomogeneity in the medium through which they are traveling. The interaction causes the waves to be deflected or spread out in different directions. Scattering can occur with various types of waves, such as electromagnetic waves (light), acoustic waves (sound), and matter waves (like electrons).
Kinematics in the context of particle physics refers to the study of the motion of particles without considering the forces that cause this motion. It encompasses the analysis of the trajectories, velocities, and momenta of particles as they move through space and time, particularly when they are involved in interactions or collisions. Key concepts in kinematics include: 1. **Position**: The location of a particle in space at a given time, often described using coordinates.
Scattering, absorption, and radiative transfer are fundamental concepts in optics that describe how light interacts with matter. Here's a brief overview of each concept: ### Scattering Scattering refers to the deflection of light rays from a straight path due to interaction with particles or irregularities in a medium. When light encounters small particles (like dust, air molecules, or water droplets), it can be redirected in various directions.
Scattering, absorption, and radiative transfer are key concepts in various fields including atmospheric science, astrophysics, climatology, and optics. Here’s a brief overview of each concept and the role of codes used to model these phenomena: ### 1. Scattering **Definition**: Scattering refers to the process by which particles deviate from a straight trajectory due to non-uniformities in the medium through which they are traveling.
The absorption cross section is a measure of the likelihood of a particle (such as a photon) being absorbed by a target, which can be an atom, molecule, or any medium. It quantifies the effective area that a particular absorber presents to incoming radiation, correlating the physical properties of the absorber with its ability to absorb electromagnetic radiation.
Analytical light scattering is a technique used to study the size, shape, and distribution of particles, macromolecules, or colloids in a solution by measuring the scattering of light as it interacts with these particles. This method is based on the principle that when a beam of monochromatic light (usually from a laser) passes through a sample, the light is scattered in different directions by the particles present in the solution.
Anomalous diffraction theory is a concept in the field of wave optics and scattering theory, primarily applicable to the interaction of electromagnetic waves, such as light, with small particles. The term "anomalous" refers to the deviations from the standard diffraction patterns predicted by classical diffraction theory (e.g., Rayleigh diffraction) when the size of the scattering objects is comparable to the wavelength of the incident light.
Backscatter refers to the phenomenon where radiation, particles, or waves that are emitted or transmitted from a source are reflected or scattered back toward the source or in other directions. It can occur in various contexts, including physics, telecommunications, and imaging systems. Here are a few specific contexts in which backscatter is commonly discussed: 1. **Physics and Particle Physics**: In particle physics, backscatter refers to the deflection of particles, such as electrons or photons, when they collide with matter.
Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Spectroscopy (CARS) is a nonlinear optical technique used to obtain information about the vibrational modes of molecules. It is primarily employed in fields such as chemistry, biology, and materials science to probe molecular structures and dynamics.
The Ewald–Oseen extinction theorem is a fundamental result in the field of electromagnetism, particularly in the study of light scattering and the interaction of light with small particles. The theorem addresses how the incident light field is affected when it encounters a particle, specifically regarding the scattering of light by the particle.
Forced Rayleigh scattering (FRS) is a technique used to analyze the properties of materials by probing them with light. It is an extension of the classical Rayleigh scattering phenomenon, which refers to the scattering of light by small particles. In classical Rayleigh scattering, the incident light interacts with particles in a medium, leading to scattered light whose characteristics depend on the size, shape, and composition of those particles.
Forward scatter refers to the phenomenon where light, or other forms of electromagnetic radiation or particles, are scattered in a direction that is close to the direction of the incoming beam. This is often studied in various scientific fields, including optics, astrophysics, and particle physics. In the context of light scattering, forward scatter typically occurs when light interacts with small particles or molecules. The degree of forward scatter can provide information about the size, shape, and composition of the particles.
Frequency Selective Surfaces (FSS) are structures designed to selectively reflect, transmit, or absorb electromagnetic waves at specific frequencies while allowing other frequencies to pass through. They are often composed of periodic arrays of conductive elements, such as patches or slots, arranged on a dielectric substrate. FSS is commonly used in various applications, including: 1. **Radar Systems**: To control electromagnetic wave propagation and enhance signal quality.
The Gaunt factor is a dimensionless quantity that arises in the field of astrophysics and plasma physics, particularly in the context of radiative transfer and the calculation of opacity in stellar atmospheres and hot plasmas. It quantifies the effect of electron scattering on the intensity of radiation in a medium.
Geometric albedo is a measure of the reflectivity of a celestial body, such as a planet, moon, or asteroid, as observed from a specific geometrical configuration. Specifically, it defines the ratio of the brightness of the object when illuminated by a light source (usually the Sun) to the brightness of a flat, fully reflective surface (like a perfect diffuser) under the same illumination conditions.
Goniophotometry is a measurement technique used to assess the luminous and color distribution of light emitted from a source or reflected from a surface. The term is derived from "gonia," meaning angle, and "photometry," which refers to the measurement of light intensity. In goniophotometry, light measurements are taken at various angles, typically using a goniophotometer, which is an instrument that allows for precise positioning of the light source and the measurement device.
A hail spike is a weather phenomenon associated with severe thunderstorms. It occurs when large hailstones are expelled from a thunderstorm, often resulting in a radar signature that appears as a spike on Doppler radar images. This spike typically indicates the presence of significant hail, often larger than one inch in diameter, within the storm. Hail spikes are formed when strong updrafts within a thunderstorm carry moisture and ice particles upwards to higher altitudes, where temperatures are below freezing.
Hapke parameters refer to a set of values used in the Hapke bidirectional reflection distribution function (BRDF), which is a mathematical model that describes how light is reflected off a rough surface (like that of a planetary body or a terrestrial material). The model is named after Bruce Hapke, who developed it to better understand and analyze the reflectance properties of planetary surfaces.
Hiding power, often referred to in the context of pigments and coatings, is a measure of a material's ability to obscure or conceal an underlying surface or color. It is particularly important in applications such as paint, where the effectiveness of the paint in covering a surface without requiring multiple coats is crucial for both aesthetic and economic reasons.
Hyper-Rayleigh scattering (HRS) is a nonlinear optical phenomenon that involves the scattering of light by molecules. Specifically, it refers to the scattering of light from a medium that exhibits a second-order nonlinear optical response. When a light wave interacts with a material, it can generate new frequencies through the nonlinear interaction of the electromagnetic field with the electronic structure of the molecules in that material.
Incoherent scatter refers to a type of scattering of electromagnetic waves, particularly radio waves, when they encounter particles in a medium, such as electrons in the ionosphere. This process is characterized by the lack of a clear correlation between the incident wave and the scattered wave, meaning that the scattering does not preserve the original phase of the incoming wave. Incoherent scatter is particularly significant in the study of the upper atmosphere and space weather.
Inelastic scattering is a process in which particles (such as photons, electrons, or neutrons) collide with a target and transfer some of their energy to the target during the interaction. This results in a change in the energy, momentum, or state of the incoming particles, as well as a change in the target particles.
The Kramers–Heisenberg formula is a fundamental result in the field of quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics (QED). It describes the scattering of photons by charged particles, particularly in the context of photon emission and absorption processes.
Kubelka–Munk theory is a mathematical model used to describe the light scattering and absorption properties of diffuse systems, particularly in relation to paints, pigments, and other similar materials. The theory, formulated by Paul Kubelka and Franz Munk in the 1930s, provides a way to understand how light interacts with multi-layered and heterogeneous materials.
Lambertian reflectance is a model used to describe the way a surface reflects light. It is based on the Lambertian surface concept, which assumes that the surface reflects light equally in all directions, regardless of the angle of incidence. This type of reflectance is characterized by its matte or diffuse appearance, meaning that the surface does not produce specular (mirror-like) highlights.
Light scattering by particles refers to the process where light waves encounter particles and are redirected in various directions. This phenomenon is critical in numerous fields, including physics, atmospheric science, and biology. The basic principles of light scattering involve the interaction of electromagnetic waves (light) with matter (particles).
Localized surface plasmons (LSPs) are collective oscillations of free electrons at the surface of metal nanoparticles, which occur in response to incident light or electromagnetic radiation. These oscillations are confined to the nanoparticle's surface and are characterized by their ability to create strong electromagnetic fields in the vicinity of the particle.
Near field and far field are terms commonly used in various fields, including physics, engineering, and telecommunications, to describe regions in relation to a source of waves, such as electromagnetic waves, sound waves, or other types of waves. ### Near Field The near field refers to the region close to the source of the wave where the behavior of the field is not specified by simple wave equations. In this zone, the wave typically does not propagate in the same way as it does in the far field.
Ocean color refers to the color of the ocean as perceived by the human eye, which results from the absorption and scattering of sunlight by water and various substances in the water. The color can vary widely depending on several factors, including: 1. **Water Depth**: In deep water, colors tend to appear darker and bluer, while shallow water may appear greener or brownish due to the presence of sediments and algae.
Ocean optics is a field of study that focuses on the interaction of light with water and its constituents, including phytoplankton, dissolved organic matter, sediments, and other materials present in the ocean. It encompasses various scientific disciplines, including physics, chemistry, and biology, to understand how light behaves in marine environments. Key aspects of ocean optics include: 1. **Light Propagation**: This involves understanding how light penetrates the ocean's surface, scattering and absorbing as it travels through water.
Optical conductivity is a fundamental property of materials that describes their ability to conduct electricity in response to an electric field oscillating at optical frequencies (typically in the range of terahertz to visible light). It reflects how well a material can transport electric charge when stimulated by electromagnetic radiation. Optical conductivity provides insight into a material's electronic structure and behavior, and it can be influenced by factors such as temperature, frequency of the light, and the presence of free carriers (like electrons) or bound charges.
Optical depth is a concept used in astrophysics and other fields to quantify how opaque a medium is to radiation, such as light. It provides a measure of how much a beam of light is attenuated as it passes through a medium, such as gas or dust.
The optical properties of water and ice are crucial in understanding their behavior in various environments, ranging from climate science to biology and engineering. Here are some key aspects: ### Optical Properties of Water 1. **Absorption**: - Water absorbs light in the ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) regions. The absorption spectrum shows that water is relatively transparent in the visible range (400-700 nm), but it absorbs strongly in the UV and near-IR regions.
The optical theorem is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics and particularly in the field of scattering theory. It establishes a relationship between the total cross section of a scattering process and the forward scattering amplitude. In more detail, the optical theorem states that the imaginary part of the forward scattering amplitude (the amplitude for scattering at an angle of zero) is proportional to the total cross section for that scattering process.
The Oren–Nayar reflectance model is a widely used model in computer graphics that describes how light reflects off rough surfaces. It was introduced by Oren and Nayar in 1994 as an improvement over the traditional Lambertian reflectance model, which assumes perfectly diffuse reflection. The Lambertian model is straightforward and works well for smooth surfaces, but it fails to accurately represent the complex interaction of light with rough surfaces that have microfacets.
A phase curve in astronomy refers to a graphical representation that illustrates how the brightness (or flux) of a celestial body changes with its phase angle or with time. The phase angle is the angle between the observer, the celestial body, and the light source (usually the Sun). Phase curves are particularly useful for understanding the reflective properties, surface conditions, or atmospheric properties of planets, moons, asteroids, and comets.
The **radiative transfer equation (RTE)** is a fundamental equation that describes the propagation of radiation (such as light) through a medium. It considers the interactions of photons with matter, accounting for scattering and absorption processes, and is critical in understanding how light interacts with biological tissues.
Raman amplification is a process that utilizes the Raman effect to amplify light signals, primarily in optical fibers and other photonic devices. The Raman effect is a phenomenon where incident light interacts with the vibrational modes of molecular structures, causing a shift in the light's wavelength due to energy transfer between the photons and the molecules.
Raman scattering is an inelastic scattering process that occurs when light interacts with molecular vibrations, phonons, or other low-frequency excitations in a material. This phenomenon is named after the Indian physicist C.V. Raman, who, along with his colleague, discovered it in 1928. In simple terms, when a monochromatic light source, typically a laser, shines on a sample, most of the light is elastically scattered, meaning it retains its original energy (or wavelength).
The Rayleigh–Gans approximation is a theoretical framework used in scattering theory, particularly to analyze how electromagnetic waves scatter off small particles. It is an extension of the Rayleigh scattering theory, which applies primarily to particles whose size is much smaller than the wavelength of the incident light.
Rotating-polarization coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy (RP-CARS) is an advanced spectroscopic technique used to investigate molecular vibrations and dynamic processes at the nanoscale. It combines aspects of coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) and polarization techniques to provide enhanced contrast and sensitivity in the analysis of materials.
The scattering matrix method, often abbreviated as S-matrix method, is a powerful mathematical framework used in various fields of physics and engineering, particularly in quantum mechanics, optics, and wave propagation. This method is essential in analyzing how waves (or particles) scatter from obstacles or potential fields.
Scintillation in physics refers to the process by which certain materials emit flashes of light (or scintillation light) when they absorb ionizing radiation. This phenomenon is commonly observed in materials known as scintillators, which can be organic compounds, inorganic crystals, or even liquids. When a scintillator material is exposed to ionizing radiation (such as alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays), the incoming radiation interacts with the atoms of the scintillator, causing excitation and ionization.
Single-scattering albedo (SSA) is a parameter used in atmospheric science, particularly in the study of aerosols and clouds. It quantifies the fraction of incident light that is scattered by a particle (such as an aerosol droplet or cloud droplet) rather than absorbed. The concept is crucial for understanding how particles interact with sunlight and affect the Earth's energy balance and climate.
Subsurface scattering (SSS) is a phenomenon in optics that occurs when light penetrates the surface of a translucent material, interacts with its internal structures, and then exits the material at a different location. This effect is particularly significant in materials that are not completely opaque and allow light to scatter within their volume, such as skin, wax, marble, and plants.
Transport length typically refers to the effective length of a medium or system that affects the movement or transport of a particular quantity, such as mass, energy, or charge. The specific meaning can vary depending on the context in which it is used. Here are a few examples of how "transport length" might be applied in different fields: 1. **Physics**: In the context of particle transport, transport length may refer to the average distance that particles can travel before undergoing a scattering event or interaction.
An ultramicroscope is a specialized optical microscope that is used to observe objects that are smaller than the wavelength of visible light. This allows for the visualization of colloidal particles, bacteria, and other minute structures that cannot be effectively resolved with conventional light microscopy. The ultramicroscope operates on the principle of dark-field microscopy, where light is directed at an angle to the specimen, and only scattered light is observed.
The Umkehr effect, also known as the "Umkehr phenomenon," refers to a specific spectral phenomenon in atmospheric science relating to the absorption of solar radiation by atmospheric gases, particularly ozone. The term "Umkehr" is derived from the German word meaning "reversal." This effect occurs during the scattering and absorption processes of sunlight in the atmosphere, where the distribution of ozone alters the vertical profile of solar radiation.
Scattering stubs refer to a technique used in various fields such as physics, telecommunications, and engineering, specifically in the study of wave propagation, scattering theory, and antenna design. The term can have slightly different interpretations depending on the context, so here are a couple of common applications: 1. **Physics and Wave Scattering**: In physics, scattering refers to the deflection of waves (like light, sound, or radio waves) when they encounter an obstacle or non-homogeneous medium.
The effective radius of a cloud drop refers to a theoretical radius that represents the size of a droplet in a cloud based on its impact on certain physical properties, such as its scattering of light or its contribution to cloud microphysics. The effective radius is used in various fields, including meteorology and climate science, to simplify complex calculations and to understand the behavior of clouds.
Electromagnetic scattering by cylinders is a significant topic in various fields such as telecommunications, radar systems, and remote sensing. There are several computational methods and codes designed for modeling the scattering behavior of cylindrical objects when they interact with electromagnetic waves. These can include numerical methods like the Finite Element Method (FEM), the Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) method, and the Method of Moments (MoM).
Diffraction tomography is an imaging technique used to reconstruct the internal structure of an object from scattered waves, typically electromagnetic waves (like light or X-rays) or acoustic waves (like sound). The method is closely associated with the principles of diffraction, which describes how waves bend around obstacles and spread out after passing through narrow openings. ### Key Concepts: 1. **Scattered Waves**: When waves encounter an object, they can scatter in various directions depending on the object's properties.
Dynamic Scattering Mode (DSM) is a technique primarily used in the field of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) and other optical devices. It involves the manipulation of light scattering behavior in a material or device to achieve desired optical properties, such as contrast or light modulation. When a voltage is applied to a liquid crystal material in DSM, the alignment of the liquid crystal molecules changes dynamically.
The dynamic structure factor (DSF) is a key concept in condensed matter physics, particularly in studies of materials and collective excitations such as phonons, magnons, and other quasiparticles. It provides information about the microscopic dynamics of a system, including how density fluctuations evolve over time. Mathematically, the dynamic structure factor \( S(\mathbf{q}, \omega) \) is defined in terms of the Fourier transform of the time-dependent density-density correlation function.
Feshbach–Fano partitioning is a mathematical technique used in quantum mechanics, particularly in the context of scattering theory and the study of resonances. This method allows researchers to analyze and separate different contributions to the scattering amplitude in a way that makes it easier to understand the underlying physical processes. The method is named after Steven Feshbach and Ugo Fano, both of whom made significant contributions to the understanding of resonances and scattering in quantum systems.
The Jost function is a mathematical concept used primarily in quantum mechanics, particularly in the analysis of one-dimensional scattering problems. It arises in the context of solving the Schrödinger equation for a potential, and is particularly important for understanding the properties of scattering states and bound states in a quantum system. In more detail, the Jost function is associated with the solutions of the radial or one-dimensional Schrödinger equation, which can be expressed in terms of a potential.
Lindblad resonance refers to a phenomenon in astrophysics and celestial mechanics, particularly in the context of orbital dynamics in disks, such as those found in galaxies or around planetary systems. It describes a specific type of resonance that occurs when the orbital frequency of a body, such as a planet or moon, matches a certain integer multiple of the orbital frequency of density waves or other perturbations in the surrounding disk.
Scattering experiments are essential techniques in various scientific fields, including physics, chemistry, and biology, used to investigate the properties of particles, atoms, and molecules. Here is a list of some significant types of scattering experiments: ### 1. **Elastic Scattering** - **Rutherford Scattering**: Used to probe the nuclear structure by scattering alpha particles off a thin foil.
The Marchenko equations are a set of integral equations used in the mathematical and physical analysis of wave propagation, particularly in the field of scattering theory and inverse problems. They are named after the Russian mathematician Vladimir Marchenko. The Marchenko equations are typically used to reconstruct the potential in one-dimensional quantum mechanical systems from scattering data.
McStas is a software tool that is primarily used for simulating the propagation of neutrons in a neutron scattering experiment. It is based on the Monte Carlo simulation method, which allows for the modeling of complex systems by simulating random processes. McStas is widely used in the fields of materials science, physics, and engineering for the design and optimization of neutron sources and instruments.
Neutron-acceptance diagram shading is a visual representation used in the context of neutron scattering experiments or neutron activation analysis. It helps in understanding the interactions between neutrons and matter, particularly focusing on how materials can absorb neutrons. This concept is often tied to nuclear physics and engineering, where understanding how different materials interact with neutrons is crucial for applications such as nuclear reactors, radiation shielding, and medical imaging.
Neutron time-of-flight (TOF) scattering is a powerful experimental technique used in condensed matter physics and materials science to investigate the structural and dynamical properties of materials. This technique involves the use of neutrons as probes, which have unique properties that make them particularly useful for studying atomic and subatomic structures.
Partial-wave analysis is a technique used in quantum mechanics and particle physics to study scattering processes and the behavior of wavefunctions. It involves decomposing a complex scattering amplitude into contributions from different angular momentum states, which correspond to various "partial waves." When particles interact, they can scatter at different angles and energies.
Secular resonance refers to a specific dynamical interaction that occurs in celestial mechanics and relates to the long-term orbital evolution of celestial bodies, particularly in system dynamics involving planets, asteroids, and moons. Unlike regular resonance, which occurs at specific orbital periods, secular resonance involves the gravitational interactions between bodies whose orbital precession rates (the rate at which their orbits rotate or change orientation) are in a simple integer ratio.
In particle physics, a "soft photon" refers to a type of photon that has relatively low energy and, as a result, long wavelength. The term is often used in the context of quantum electrodynamics (QED) and scattering processes. Soft photons are particularly relevant in discussions about radiation emitted during high-energy processes, such as the collisions of charged particles.
Stimulated Raman Adiabatic Passage (STIRAP) is a technique used in quantum mechanics and quantum optics to achieve coherent population transfer between quantum states. It is particularly relevant in fields such as quantum computing, atomic physics, and molecular manipulation. ### Key Concepts of STIRAP: 1. **Quantum States**: STIRAP typically involves a three-level quantum system, which can be represented as states |1⟩, |2⟩, and |3⟩.
Acoplanarity refers to a geometric condition where two or more objects, often in the context of physics or engineering, do not lie in the same plane. This concept is particularly relevant in fields like particle physics, where it may be used to analyze the interaction of particles and their decay products. In practical terms, when dealing with momentum vectors of particles in high-energy physics, acoplanarity tends to describe a situation where the vectors of the outgoing particles do not all fall within the same planar surface.
The Born series, named after Max Born, refers to a sequence of terms used in quantum mechanics to solve problems involving scattering processes. The Born series is particularly relevant in the context of the scattering theory where it provides an iterative method for calculating the scattering amplitude. The Born series is often expressed as a power series expansion in terms of the interaction potential \( V \) in the context of the time-independent Schrödinger equation.
Bremsstrahlung is a German term that translates to "braking radiation." It refers to the electromagnetic radiation emitted when charged particles, such as electrons, are accelerated or decelerated, particularly when they pass near atomic nuclei. This process occurs because the change in the velocity of the charged particle results in the emission of energy in the form of radiation, typically X-rays.
Brillouin scattering is a phenomenon in which light (or another electromagnetic wave) interacts with acoustic phonons (sound waves) in a medium, leading to a change in the frequency of the light. This interaction results from the coupling between the electromagnetic wave and the mechanical vibrations of the material.
Chaotic scattering refers to a phenomenon in dynamical systems, particularly in the context of scattering processes, where the trajectories of particles become highly sensitive to initial conditions due to the underlying chaotic dynamics of the system. In chaotic scattering, small changes in the initial conditions of incoming particles can lead to vastly different scattering outcomes.
Coherent backscattering is an optical phenomenon that occurs when coherent light, such as that from a laser, interacts with a disordered medium, such as an opaque or rough surface. This effect is characterized by an increase in the intensity of light that is scattered back in the direction of the incoming beam due to multiple scattering events within the medium. Here are the key points regarding coherent backscattering: 1. **Interference**: The phenomenon arises from the interference of scattered waves.
Core-excited shape resonance is a phenomenon observed in the field of quantum mechanics and atomic physics, particularly in the context of electron scattering and the interaction of charged particles with matter. Here’s a summary of the key concepts involved: 1. **Shape Resonance**: This term generally refers to a type of resonance that occurs when an incoming particle experiences a potential barrier and the shape of the potential allows for the temporary trapping of the particle, leading to an enhancement of scattering processes.
Coulomb collision refers to the process in which charged particles, such as electrons or ions, interact with each other through the Coulomb force, which is the electromagnetic force between charged particles. This interaction can lead to scattering events where the trajectory and energy of the charged particles can change due to their mutual repulsion (in the case of like charges) or attraction (in the case of opposite charges).
A Dalitz plot is a graphical representation used in particle physics to visualize the energy and momentum distribution of decay products from a three-body decay process. It is particularly useful for studying the kinematics of interactions involving three particles resulting from the decay of a parent particle. In a Dalitz plot, the axes typically correspond to the invariant masses of pairs of the decay products.
The Debye–Waller factor, also known as the thermal factor or the static form factor, quantifies the effect of atomic vibrations on the scattering of neutrons or X-rays by a crystalline material. Specifically, it describes how much the intensity of scattered X-rays or neutrons is reduced due to the thermal motion of atoms within a crystal lattice. In a crystalline solid, atoms are not stationary but vibrate about their equilibrium positions due to thermal energy.
Deep inelastic scattering (DIS) is a high-energy particle physics process that provides insights into the internal structure of protons, neutrons, and other hadrons. It involves the scattering of high-energy electrons (or other leptons) off of protons or neutrons, where the energy of the lepton is high enough that it can probe the internal quark and gluon constituents of the target hadron.
In physics, deflection refers to the displacement of a body or a beam from its original position under the influence of an external force. When an object is subjected to forces such as tension, compression, bending, or torsion, it can deform or bend, resulting in a change in its shape or position. Deflection is often measured as the distance that a point on the structure moves from its equilibrium position.
Delbrück scattering is a quantum electrodynamic effect that involves the scattering of photons by the electromagnetic field of a nucleus. It is named after the physicist Max Delbrück, who contributed to the theoretical understanding of the phenomenon. In Delbrück scattering, a high-energy photon can interact with the electric field of a heavy nucleus, leading to an intermediate state where the photon temporarily produces virtual electron-positron pairs.
Differential static light scatter (DSLS) is a technique primarily used in the fields of material science, biophysics, and biochemistry for the analysis of small particles, such as colloids, proteins, or other biomolecules in solution. This method leverages the principles of light scattering to provide information about the size, shape, and distribution of these particles.
Elastic scattering is a process in which particles collide without experiencing any change in their internal states or energies. In such interactions, the total kinetic energy of the system is conserved. This means that the incoming particles and the scattered particles retain the same kinetic energy before and after the collision, although their directions may change due to the scattering process.
Electron scattering is a process in which electrons are directed towards a target material, and their trajectories are altered as a result of interactions with the target’s atoms, nuclei, or electrons. This phenomenon is fundamental in various fields of physics and has important applications in understanding atomic structure, particle physics, and materials science. **Key Concepts:** 1. **Types of Scattering:** - **Elastic Scattering:** The kinetic energy of the electrons is conserved, although their direction may change.
Electron wake refers to the phenomenon that occurs when an electron moves through a medium, such as a plasma or another charged particle system, causing a disturbance in the surrounding environment. As the electron travels, it interacts with other particles, creating a "wake" of electric field disturbances behind it, similar to the way a boat creates waves in water as it moves. This wake can influence the motion of other nearby electrons or charged particles, leading to various collective behaviors.
Engineering diffraction refers to the study and application of the diffraction of waves, particularly in the context of engineering and technology. Diffraction is a phenomenon that occurs when waves encounter obstacles or openings, causing the waves to bend or spread out. This concept is important in various fields, including optics, acoustics, and telecommunications, where understanding diffraction can lead to improved designs, functionality, and performance of systems.
FUTBOLIN is a modern tabletop game that combines elements of soccer (football) and foosball (table football). It is generally played on a small table where players control miniature soccer players attached to rods, allowing them to pass, shoot, and defend within the confines of the table. The objective is to score goals against the opponent's team while managing the positioning and strategy of one's own players.
Fano resonance is a phenomenon that occurs in quantum systems and is characterized by an interference effect between a discrete quantum state and a continuum of states. It arises in various fields, including atomic, molecular, and condensed matter physics, as well as in optics and photonics. The Fano resonance is named after the Italian physicist Ugo Fano, who introduced the concept in the 1960s.
GANs, or Generative Adversarial Networks, are a class of machine learning frameworks introduced by Ian Goodfellow and his colleagues in 2014. The fundamental idea behind GANs is to set up a game between two models: a generator and a discriminator. 1. **Generator**: This model generates new data instances. It takes random noise as input and tries to produce data that mimics the actual distribution of the training data.
Grazing-incidence small-angle scattering (GISAS) is a powerful experimental technique primarily used in materials science, physics, and biophysics to study thin films, nanostructures, and surfaces. It combines aspects of small-angle scattering (SAS) and grazing incidence techniques to provide valuable information about the structural properties of materials at the nanoscale.
High-frequency approximation refers to a method or approach used in various fields, such as physics, engineering, and applied mathematics, to simplify the analysis of systems or phenomena that exhibit high-frequency behavior. The core idea is to make approximations that become valid when the frequency of interest is much larger than certain characteristic frequencies of the system.
An inelastic collision is a type of collision in which the total kinetic energy of the system is not conserved, although the total momentum is conserved. Inelastic collisions occur when two objects collide and become deformed, stick together, or otherwise interact in a way that some of the kinetic energy is transformed into other forms of energy, such as heat, sound, or internal energy. In perfectly inelastic collisions, the colliding objects stick together after the collision and move as a single entity.
Ionized impurity scattering is a phenomenon that occurs in semiconductors and other materials where charge carriers (such as electrons and holes) interact with charged impurities present in the material. These charged impurities can be intentionally introduced (as dopants) or can be present as defects in the crystal lattice. ### Mechanism When a charge carrier moves through a semiconductor, it can experience a scattering event due to the electric fields generated by these ionized impurities.
The Klein–Nishina formula describes the differential cross-section for the scattering of photons (such as X-rays or gamma rays) by free electrons. It is a crucial result in quantum electrodynamics and is derived from the principles of quantum mechanics and special relativity. The formula takes into account the relativistic effects and the quantum nature of both the photons and electrons, and it provides the probability of scattering at a given angle.
Lambert's cosine law, also known as Lambert's law of illumination, describes how the intensity of light (or radiation) received from a surface changes with the angle of incidence relative to the surface normals. According to this law, the illuminance (or intensity of light) on a surface is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle between the surface normal and the direction of the light source.
Lattice scattering refers to the phenomenon where a particle, such as an electron or phonon, interacts with the regular periodic structure of a crystal lattice. This process is crucial in solid-state physics and materials science because it affects various properties of materials, including electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and the behavior of electrons in semiconductors. In more detail, in a crystalline solid, atoms are arranged in a repetitive pattern, forming a lattice.
The Lippmann–Schwinger equation is a fundamental equation in quantum mechanics that describes the scattering of particles. It is derived from the principles of quantum mechanics and is particularly useful in dealing with interactions in quantum systems. The equation can be expressed in two forms: the "in" and "out" formulations, corresponding to the incoming and outgoing states of the particles involved in scattering.
Low-angle laser light scattering (LALLS) is a technique used primarily to characterize the size and distribution of particles, molecules, or macromolecular substances in a solution or suspension. LALLS measures the intensity of light scattered by particles when illuminated by a laser beam at low scattering angles, typically less than 5 degrees from the incident beam direction.
The method of continued fractions is a mathematical technique used to represent real numbers as an infinite sequence of fractions, which can be particularly useful in various areas such as number theory, approximation theory, and numerical analysis.
Mott scattering refers to a phenomenon observed in the scattering of charged particles, particularly electrons, by nuclei or other charged particles. Named after the physicist Neil Mott, this scattering process is notable for being a quantum mechanical interaction that can reveal important information about the internal structure of the target particles. In Mott scattering, an incident charged particle (like an electron) interacts electrostatically with the electric field of a charged target particle (such as an atomic nucleus).
Multi-Configuration Time-Dependent Hartree (MCTDH) is an advanced computational method used in quantum mechanics, particularly for studying the dynamics of quantum many-body systems. It is an extension of the time-dependent Hartree and Hartree-Fock methods, designed to handle large systems where individual particles exhibit complex interactions.
A neutron moisture gauge is an instrument used to measure the moisture content in soil, concrete, and other materials. It operates based on the principles of nuclear physics, specifically by utilizing low-energy neutrons to interact with hydrogen atoms found in water. ### How It Works: 1. **Source of Neutrons**: The gauge contains a radioactive source, typically americium-beryllium, that emits neutrons.
Neutron scattering is a powerful experimental technique used to probe the structure and dynamics of materials at the atomic or molecular level. It involves the scattering of neutrons, which are neutral elementary particles found in the nucleus of atoms. Due to their neutral charge and relatively high mass, neutrons can penetrate deep into matter without causing significant damage, making them ideal for studying a wide variety of materials, including solids, liquids, gases, and complex biological systems.
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