Online text: sprott.physics.wisc.edu/demobook/CHAPTER1.HTM

Cited passages: section 1.3, Bicycle Wheel Gyroscope: Materials, Procedure, and Discussion.

Online text: introphys.gatech.edu/lab/2212/lab5/labmanual.html

Cited passages: Eric Murray, Physics 2212, Lab 5, Experiment 2: evaluate the field fit and its uncertainty; Eric Murray, Physics 2212, Lab 5, Experiment 2: quantitative field determination; Eric Murray, Physics 2212, Lab 5: Electric Potential and Field, Fall 2006; Features, Preliminaries and Experiment 1.

Online text: www.pbr-book.org/4ed/Primitives_and_Intersection_Acceleration/Bounding_Volume_Hierarchies

Cited passages: §7.3, opening paragraphs and Figure 7.3: leaves, descendant bounds and rejection of a subtree.

Online text: www.pbr-book.org/4ed/Geometry_and_Transformations/Bounding_Boxes

Cited passages: §3.7, Intersect() and Overlaps(): coordinate-wise intersection and inclusive comparisons; §3.7, two-point representation and Figure 3.9.

Online text: courses.physics.illinois.edu/phys460/fa2006/lnotes/460-lect17.html

Cited passages: Phys 460, Lecture 17, 25 October 2006, lecturer Richard Martin, item 5: momentum, energy, velocity, mass and charge of holes.

A clade comprises an ancestor and all its descendants. Membership is about common descent, not a taxonomic rank or a degree of cellular complexity. In a two-domain system, the nuclear lineage of eukaryotes nests within archaea; a group containing only the prokaryotic members excludes descendants and is therefore not that complete clade. See OpenStax Biology 2e, 20.2: clades and shared ancestry.

In a chloroplast, light-dependent reactions take place at thylakoid membranes. Chlorophyll captures light; electron transfer helps establish an electrochemical gradient across the thylakoid membrane, enabling formation of ATP. The oxygenic photosynthesis pathway also forms NADPH and releases molecular oxygen from water. ATP and NADPH become available in the chloroplast stroma for the Calvin cycle. See Alberts et al.: chloroplast light reactions.

Anoxygenic photosynthesis captures light without producing molecular oxygen. It occurs in some bacteria and uses electron sources other than water. Whether carbon fixation accompanies this light capture depends on the organism and conditions; photosynthesis does not imply one universal carbon-assimilation pathway. See Alberts et al.: chloroplasts and photosynthetic bacteria.

Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron source and releases molecular oxygen. Plants, algae and cyanobacteria provide examples. The defining distinction from anoxygenic photosynthesis is molecular oxygen release, not merely capture of light.

Photofragment-ion imaging detects fragment velocities by ionizing neutral products and mapping their motion onto a position-sensitive detector using an electric field. In a velocity-mapping implementation, the image radius measures transverse speed under fixed lens settings. Selecting an arrival-time slice helps extract the central plane of the three-dimensional distribution. Species identification and electronic quantum state selection are essential for turning a radius into a particular dissociation threshold.

Inorganic phosphate, abbreviated ${\mathrm{P}}_i$, denotes the free phosphate pool in biochemical chemical equations, including ATP hydrolysis. Its constituent chemical species depend on pH and protonation; ${\mathrm{P}}_i$ does not specify a single electric charge or proton count. See the IUBMB recommendations on biochemical reactant pools.

Penetrance is the probability of an expressed phenotype conditional on a specified genotype. It can depend on age, sex and environment. A fully penetrant recessive model assigns disease probability one to the recessive homozygote and zero to other genotypes; incomplete penetrance or phenocopies replace these indicators by intermediate probabilities.

The relationship between the phenotype of a heterozygote and those of the two corresponding homozygotes at a genetic locus. Under complete dominance, one allele gives the same phenotype in the heterozygote as in its homozygote; the term describes expression rather than the frequency or evolutionary advantage of the allele.

Two sinusoidal signals are in phase quadrature when their phase difference is a quarter cycle, for example $\cos \varphi$ and $\sin \varphi$. Their time averages have zero correlation over a cycle. In a plane wave, this separates fields such as displacement and its time derivative, velocity.

A phase difference compares two wave phases at the same position and time. For $u_1=A_1\cos (\omega t+{\varphi }_1)$ and $u_2=A_2\cos (\omega t+{\varphi }_2)$, set $\Delta \varphi ={\varphi }_2-{\varphi }_1$, modulo $2\pi$. Adding the two complex amplitudes gives the squared resultant amplitudeEqual amplitudes reinforce at $\Delta \varphi =0$ and cancel at $\Delta \varphi =\pi$; at phase quadrature the cross term vanishes in the cycle average.

For propagation through a uniform nondispersive path difference $\Delta L$, the magnitude of the accumulated phase difference is $2\pi \Delta L/\lambda$, with its sign fixed by the comparison convention. A two-path interference measurement therefore converts a small path change into an observable change of wave intensity. A stable fringe pattern requires that the relative wave phase remain sufficiently stable during the measurement.