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With kernel $e^{-2\pi i⟨u,x⟩}$ and $\mathrm{Im}\tau >0$, the Fourier transform of $e^{\pi i\tau |x{|}^2}$ is $(-i\tau {)}^{-n/2}{e}^{-\pi i|u{|}^2/\tau }$. Choose the logarithm of $-i\tau$ on the right half-plane. The ordinary real Gaussian Fourier transform proves the identity at $\tau =it$; holomorphic continuation proves the complex formula.

For sufficiently regular integrable functions on a half-line, Fourier sine transform inversion recovers the odd extension at continuity points. A zero endpoint value is required when demanding continuity at the endpoint.

The functions $\sqrt{2/\pi }\sin (nx)$, $n\ge 1$, form a complete orthonormal basis of $L^2(0,\pi )$. An odd extension to $(-\pi ,\pi )$ reduces completeness to that of the Fourier series. Equality of all sine coefficients therefore implies equality almost everywhere; if both functions are continuous, it implies equality everywhere.

If a periodic integrable function has all Fourier coefficients zero, it vanishes almost everywhere. Its Fejér sums vanish, whereas the Fejér kernel is an approximate identity and converges to that function in the integrable norm. Applied to a periodized squared Fourier transform, this detects orthogonality of integer translates.

A real closed field is a formally real field with no proper formally real algebraic extension. Equivalently every positive element in its unique compatible order is a square and every odd-degree polynomial has a root. Its positive cone is definable in the field language as the nonzero squares. The Theory of real closed fields is model-complete.

A field can be ordered compatibly with addition and multiplication if and only if it is a formally real field. This ordering criterion concerns real algebra, and is different from Artin–Schreier theory of cyclic extensions in positive characteristic.

A two-component spanning forest of a finite connected graph is an acyclic spanning subgraph with exactly two connected components of a graph. It has $|V|-2$ edges. For distinct terminals $a,z$, a separating two-component forest places them in different components. Deleting an edge of the $a$-to-$z$ graph path of a spanning tree produces such a forest; adjoining any original edge across its cut reverses this operation. This is the counting correspondence behind the mean spanning-tree path current.

In standard notation for forcing, an order is separative if $p\nleqq q$ implies that some $r\le p$ is incompatible with $q$. Separativity does not imply an atomless forcing order: the one-point order is separative and has a forcing atom. Its only generic filter is a ground-model set. Atomlessness is the hypothesis in generic filter for an atomless order is new.

A forcing order that is countable inside the ground model. It has the countable chain condition and preserves ${\omega }_1$. Internal countability is distinct from external countability of the entire model.

A forcing is cofinality-preserving over a transitive model $M$ if every generic extension has the same cofinality for every ground ordinal. The values are compared as ordinals, which forcing preserves.

A forcing collapses a ground-model cardinal $\kappa$ if it forces a bijection from a smaller ordinal onto the ground ordinal $\kappa$. The ordinal itself is preserved; its being an initial ordinal is lost.

A subset of a forcing order whose distinct members have no common stronger extension. A maximal forcing antichain has a compatible member for every condition. For forcing by nodes of a set-theoretic tree, ordered by extension, this coincides with a tree antichain.

The drift vector is the expected infinitesimal displacement per unit time. For jumps $r$ with rates $W(x,r)$, it is $A_i(x)={\sum }_r{r}_{i}W(x,r)$. It is the first jump moment entering the Fokker-Planck equation.

The diffusion matrix is the infinitesimal second jump moment, $B_{ij}(x)={\sum }_r{r}_i{r}_{j}W(x,r)$. It is symmetric and positive semidefinite and multiplies the second-derivative term of the Fokker-Planck equation.

The probability-density equation for the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process with drift $-v$ and diffusion coefficient $\sqrt{2}$. The unit-covariance Gaussian density is stationary because its Fokker-Planck probability current vanishes. This normalization makes mean velocity decay at rate one and energy excess decay at rate two.

A probability density left unchanged by the Fokker-Planck equation ${\partial }_{t}f=L^{\ast }f$. Equivalently its Fokker-Planck probability current has zero divergence; the current itself need not vanish. For the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck Fokker-Planck equation, the normalized standard Gaussian density has zero current and is stationary.

The eigenvalue of a mode number operator counts excitations in that mode. Bosonic occupation numbers range over all nonnegative integers; fermionic occupation numbers are zero or one.

An internal vertex capacity bounds the total flow through that vertex, equivalently its total inflow or outflow by flow conservation. Replace the vertex by an input and output vertex, direct incoming edges to the input and outgoing edges from the output, and connect input to output with an edge of the vertex capacity. This converts the constraint into an ordinary flow network edge capacity.

The conformal Friedmann equation is ${\mathcal{H}}^2=H_0^2[{\Omega }_m/a+1-{\Omega }_m]$. Differentiating and using $a^{\prime }=a\mathcal{H}$ eliminates the matter term and yields a first-order Riccati equation. The expanding Big-Bang branch for $0<{\Omega }_m<1$ has $\mathcal{H}=\alpha \coth (\alpha \tau /2)$.

With constant interface thickness and the local entrainment exponent $3/2$, the fixed-energy turbulent mixed layer satisfies $\dot{h}=C{\Omega }^4{R}^6/(N^3{\delta }^{3/2}{h}^{7/2})$. Integration gives a linear growth law for $h^{9/2}$. Once an initial-depth offset is negligible, $h/R$ scales as $[{\Omega }^{2}R/(N^2\delta ){]}^{1/3}(\Omega t{)}^{2/9}$. The law applies before the mixed layer reaches the tank bottom and after the initial forcing transient.