The Leiden Manifesto is a set of principles developed to guide the assessment of research impact in science. It was established in 2015 during a conference held in Leiden, Netherlands, with the goal of promoting responsible and meaningful evaluation of research outcomes. The manifesto arose from concerns about the misuse of quantitative metrics, such as journal impact factors and citation counts, which can lead to a narrow and sometimes inaccurate understanding of research quality and significance.

The level of measurement, also known as the scale of measurement, refers to the relationship between the values of a variable and the mathematical operations that can be performed on those values. Understanding the level of measurement is crucial in statistics and research because it influences the choice of statistical methods and the interpretation of data. There are four primary levels of measurement: 1. **Nominal Level**: This is the most basic level of measurement, where data are categorized without any quantitative value.

Environmental sampling techniques are methods used to collect samples from various environments for the purpose of analysis, monitoring, and research. Here is a list of common environmental sampling techniques: ### 1. **Air Sampling Techniques** - **Passive Sampling:** Uses diffusion to collect airborne pollutants over time. - **Active Sampling:** Involves pumps or other means to actively draw air through a filter or collection medium. - **Grab Sampling:** Collecting a single air sample at a specific time and location.

Mertonian norms refer to a set of values and ethical guidelines associated with scientific research, formulated by sociologist Robert K. Merton. Merton identified four key norms that he believed constitute the ethos of science, which serve to promote the integrity, objectivity, and communal nature of scientific practice.

The nursing process is a systematic, patient-centered approach used by nurses to provide effective care. It consists of five key steps designed to ensure that patient needs are assessed and addressed comprehensively. The steps are: 1. **Assessment**: This is the initial phase where nurses gather comprehensive information about the patient’s health status. This includes taking medical history, conducting physical exams, and collecting data through observation, interviews, and diagnostic tests.

Sampling in statistics refers to the process of selecting a subset (or sample) from a larger population in order to make inferences or gain insights about that population. Since studying an entire population can be impractical or impossible due to time, cost, or logistical constraints, sampling provides a way to gather data efficiently. There are several key concepts and methods associated with sampling: 1. **Population**: The entire group of individuals or observations that we want to draw conclusions about.

Nektar++ is an open-source structured spectral element framework used for computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and other engineering simulations. It is particularly suited for solving partial differential equations (PDEs) using spectral methods, which are numerical techniques that leverage polynomial approximations for high accuracy.

OOFEM, which stands for Object-Oriented Finite Element Method, is a software framework designed for the simulation of mechanical systems and other physical processes using finite element analysis (FEA). It is developed in a modular and object-oriented manner, enabling flexibility and extensibility. Key features of OOFEM include: 1. **Finite Element Analysis**: OOFEM can simulate various physical phenomena, including structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, and more.

A Priority Certificate is a type of document often used in various contexts to signal the importance or urgency of a particular issue, request, or transaction. Its specific meaning can vary depending on the field in which it is used. Here are a few contexts where a Priority Certificate may be relevant: 1. **Intellectual Property**: In the context of patents, a priority certificate may refer to a document that establishes the priority date of an invention.

Progressive contextualization is a methodology commonly discussed in fields such as education, psychology, and intercultural communication. It refers to the process of gradually adapting and modifying content or concepts to fit the cultural, social, or contextual backgrounds of the audience or learners. The aim is to make the information more relevant and understandable by connecting it to the learner's prior knowledge and experiences.

Protoscience is a term used to describe a field of study that lies on the border of established science and unscientific theory. It refers to areas of research or inquiry that are in the early stages of development and may not yet have a robust theoretical framework or empirical support. Protoscience often represents ideas that might eventually evolve into full-fledged scientific disciplines, but at the moment, they lack the rigorous methodology or wide acceptance typically associated with mainstream science.

In biology, "replicate" generally refers to the process of creating a copy or duplicate of a biological entity, such as DNA, cells, or organisms. The term can have different contexts depending on the area of study: 1. **DNA Replication**: This is the biological process by which a cell makes an exact copy of its DNA. This occurs during the S-phase of the cell cycle and is crucial for cell division, allowing genetic information to be passed on to daughter cells.

Scientific control refers to the systematic and methodical approach used in scientific investigations to ensure that the results of an experiment are valid and reliable. It involves several key principles and practices aimed at eliminating or minimizing the influence of extraneous variables, allowing researchers to draw accurate conclusions about the relationship between independent and dependent variables. Key components of scientific control include: 1. **Control Groups**: In experiments, control groups do not receive the experimental treatment or manipulation that is applied to the experimental groups.

"Scientific enterprise" refers to the collective activities, organizations, and processes involved in the pursuit of scientific research and knowledge creation. It encompasses a wide range of components, including: 1. **Research Institutions:** Universities, laboratories, and research organizations that conduct scientific investigations and experiments. 2. **Funding Agencies:** Government bodies, private foundations, and corporations that provide financial support for scientific research.

Agros2D is a software framework designed for simulating complex agricultural systems, particularly for research and development purposes. It typically integrates various environmental and agricultural variables to model and analyze practices, crop growth, pest dynamics, and other relevant factors affecting agriculture. Such frameworks often incorporate functionalities for data visualization, modeling different scenarios, and aiding decision-making processes in agricultural practices.

In matroid theory, a **dual matroid** is a fundamental concept that provides a way to relate two different matroids.

Scientific evidence refers to the body of data and observations that support or refute scientific hypotheses or theories. It is derived from the scientific method, which involves systematic and objective observation, experimentation, and analysis. Key characteristics of scientific evidence include: 1. **Empirical**: It is based on observable and measurable phenomena rather than speculation or opinion. This means that findings can be verified through experimentation or direct observation.

Scientific priority generally refers to the recognition of who was the first to make a particular scientific discovery or to develop a new theory, concept, or method. This concept is important in the scientific community because it can affect authorship of research, credit for discoveries, and the allocation of funding or resources. Key aspects of scientific priority include: 1. **Publication**: The priority is often established through publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

Secondary research, also known as desk research, involves the collection and analysis of existing data that has already been gathered and published by others. This type of research does not involve the direct gathering of new data but instead focuses on analyzing and synthesizing information from previously conducted studies, articles, reports, and other relevant sources.

Selection bias refers to a type of error that occurs when the sample taken for a study or analysis is not representative of the larger population from which it is drawn. This can lead to skewed or invalid conclusions because the characteristics of the sample may differ significantly from those of the overall population.